Abstract
Synopsis
Propofol is an intravenous sedative hypnotic agent which rapidly and reliably causes loss of consciousness. It is also associated with a quick and ‘smooth’ recovery, which distinguishes it from many of the more traditional anaesthetic regimens. Like other intravenous agents, propofol is both a cardiovascular and a respiratory depressant; however, the risk of these effects can be lessened by appropriate dosage adjustment or patient management. Anaphylaxis with propofol is rare.
Propofol anaesthesia in day case surgery is consistently associated with a quicker early recovery than other intravenous agents and the more traditional anaesthetic regimens. Savings in time to discharge were more variable compared with these regimens, although propofol was commonly associated with less postoperative nausea and vomiting in this period. In the future, the relative benefits of propofol compared with the newer volatile agents (desflurane and sevoflurane) and propofol/volatile agent combinations need to be examined in this clinical setting.
There is now clinical experience with propofol in major surgical procedures including cardiac and neurosurgery. Propofol has also been investigated as a sedative accompanying regional or local anaesthesia for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, and in other clinical settings (ophthalmic surgery, cardioversion and electroconvulsive therapy). The unique antiemetic, antiepileptic and antipruritic effects of propofol may further broaden its appeal
As a result of its favourable recovery profile, propofol holds a central place in day case surgery anaesthesia. Accumulating clinical experience in cardiac and neurosurgery suggests that the full potential of propofol has yet to be realised.
Pharmacodynamic Properties
Propofol is a sedative hypnotic agent structurally unrelated to other hypnotic compounds. It induces hypnosis rapidly and reliably, and has additive or synergistic hypnotic effects with many other agents (barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opioids and ketamine) used in anaesthesia.
Propofol is a cardiovascular depressant. Following induction of anaesthesia with propofol, 53% of patients in a postmarketing study experienced a reduction in systolic blood pressure of 15 to 35%. Bradycardia (<50 beats/min) was also observed in 2% of patients at induction of anaesthesia. Propofol effectively blunts the hypertensive response to intubation, laryngeal mask airway (LMA) insertion or bronchoscopy.
Anaesthetic doses of propofol are associated with respiratory depressant effects (reduced tidal volume and apnoea). A standard induction dose of propofol depresses pharyngeal reflexes and provides jaw tone satisfactory for intubation.
Propofol decreases cerebral blood flow, which is accompanied by reduced cerebral metabolic requirement for oxygen and lowered intracranial pressure (ICP); the effect on ICP is more marked in patients with higher baseline ICP. Cerebral perfusion pressure is also usually decreased. Cerebral autoregulation is preserved during propofol anaesthesia. Evidence of any cerebral protective effects of propofol is restricted to animal models only.
Propofol, like other anaesthetic agents, has both anticonvulsant and neuroexcitatory activity. The anticonvulsant activity of propofol is thought to be mediated by γ-aminobutyric acid receptors, while the origin of its neuroexcitatory activity is unknown.
Propofol has amnesic properties, but they are not as marked as those of the benzodiazepines. Limited evidence suggests that propofol has no effect on hepatic function or production of Cortisol by the adrenal glands. Propofol also possesses antioxidant activity, although the clinical relevance of this effect is yet to be determined.
Pharmacokinetic Properties
The pharmacokinetic profile of propofol is characterised by a fast distribution from the blood into tissues, rapid metabolic clearance from the blood and slow return of the drug from the peripheral compartment. The interaction of these processes produces a rapid onset and a short duration of action. Propofol is rapidly and extensively distributed to well perfused tissue (including the brain), then to lean muscle and finally to fat tissue.
Propofol is extensively metabolised (primarily in the liver) with less than 0.3% of an administered dose excreted in the urine as the parent compound. Total body clearance ranges from 77 to 156 L/h after either bolus doses or a continuous infusion. The elimination kinetics are triphasic with distribution, second-phase and terminal elimination half-lives ranging, respectively, from 1.8 to 9.5 minutes, 21 to 56 minutes and 1.5 to 28.6 hours. The long terminal elimination half-life is not considered to be of clinical significance.
The elderly generally have a lower volume of distribution of the central compartment (Vc) and a lower total body clearance of propofol than younger adults, whereas children generally have a higher Vc and total body clearance. The presence of cirrhosis or renal dysfunction does not significantly alter the pharmacokinetics of propofol.
Clinical Use
Day Case Surgery. Propofol has been extensively investigated in day case surgery either for the induction, or induction and maintenance of anaesthesia. Speed of recovery to ‘ready for discharge’, the principal end-point used in this clinical setting, was consistently faster following propofol induction/maintenance than after a traditional intravenous/volatile agent combination or other intravenous agents. Although the time to emergence was shorter with the newer volatile agent desflurane than propofol, time to discharge and late recovery were equivalent. Propofol recovery was reported to be ‘smoother’ compared with some intravenous and volatile agents. Importantly, propofol was also consistently associated with a lower incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) than other regimens.
Impairment of psychomotor function may occur for up to 5 hours after propofol administration according to comparisons with baseline or with un-anaethestised volunteers. Compared with other intravenous agents, propofol is associated with quicker psychomotor recovery within the first hour only. Benefits up to 4 hours postoperatively were noted compared with thiopental sodium/ isoflurane. There is also some evidence of euphoric effects following propofol anaesthesia.
By offering a quicker and smoother recovery to discharge with less PONV than the more traditional anaesthetic regimens used in day case surgery, propofol may have potential pharmacoeconomic benefits. However, available pharmacoeconomic data pertaining to propofol are currently restricted to retrospective assessment of drug acquisition costs only. Prospective pharmacoeconomic evaluations which consider all pertinent costs are warranted with propofol, notably against the regimens over which the clinical benefits of propofol are slight (e.g. propofol induction/volatile agent maintenance, desflurane and sevoflurane). Neurosurgery. Although propofol has different cerebral haemodynamic effects compared with other anaesthetic agents, the largest trial conducted to date demonstrated only modest differences between propofol and other regimens in patients undergoing neurosurgery. Propofol anaesthesia, however, offers a short recovery time which allows rapid postoperative neurological assessment.
Cardiac Surgery. Haemodynamic stability with minimal myocardial depression is imperative during cardiac surgery. During maintenance of anaesthesia in cardiac surgery, propofol was similar to more established regimens in terms of haemodynamic stability. Induction with propofol, however, is associated with hypotension, although myocardial ischaemia has not been reported. The optimal propofol-based regimen for anaesthesia in cardiac surgery has yet to be defined. Conscious Sedation. Propofol has been used successfully as a sedative to accompany either local or regional anaesthesia. Compared with midazolam, propofol consistently offered a faster recovery and similar or less amnesia. Monitoring of oxygen saturation is recommended with propofol use as bradypnoea and/or hypoxaemia can occur. A recent development in this area is that of patient-controlled sedation with propofol. This technique is preferred by patients and is as effective as anaesthetist-administered sedation. Propofol has also been used as a sedative in children undergoing diagnostic imaging procedures or radiotherapy.
Other Uses. Other clinical settings in which propofol may be a useful anaesthetic agent include ophthalmic surgery, electroconvulsive therapy, cardioversion, and intubation or LMA insertion.
In addition to its hypnotic effects, propofol also possesses other properties. These include antiemetic, antipruritic and antiepileptic effects, which, with the exception of the antiepileptic effects, are achieved at subsedative blood concentrations of the agent.
Tolerability
Pain on injection is the most commonly reported adverse event in association with propofol induction; moderate to severe pain occurs in 32 to 52% of patients. Coadministration of lidocaine (lignocaine) effectively reduces the incidence of propofol-associated pain.
Propofol is associated with a consistently lower incidence of PONV than that observed with other anaesthetic regimens.
Neuroexcitatory events are occasionally observed with propofol use. These are observed most commonly during emergence and are transient. On the basis of phase IV data, delayed awakening (>15 minutes) has been reported in 6.8% of patients.
Rarer events associated with propofol include severe bradycardia, anaphylaxis, and disinhibited behaviour on emergence. Since propofol can support the growth of both bacteria and fungi, strict aseptic technique should be observed during preparation and administration to minimise the risk of extrinsic contamination. The abuse potential of propofol seems to be low.
Dosage and Administration
For induction of anaesthesia, most adult patients require propofol 2 to 2.5 mg/kg. Lower doses may be required in patients over 55 years of age. In children (aged >8 years), an induction dose of 2.5 mg/kg is recommended but higher doses may be required in younger children. Anaesthesia can be maintained by either continuous infusion (usually 4 to 12 mg/kg/h in adults and 9 to 15 mg/kg/h in children) or repeat bolus injections (25 to 50mg) as needed.
Propofol 6 to 9 mg/kg/h for induction followed by 1.5 to 4.5 mg/kg/h for maintenance is appropriate for sedation. Patients over 55 years of age may require lower doses of propofol for conscious sedation during surgical and diagnostic procedures.
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Various sections of the manuscript reviewed by: I. Ben-Shlomo, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, The Rebecca Sieff Government Hospital, Safed, Israel; A. Borgeat, Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland; G. Capogna, Department of Anesthesiology, Fatebenefratelli General Hospital, Rome, Italy; N.W. Goodman, University Department of Anaesthesia, Southmead Hospital, Bristol, England; K. Korttila, Department of Anaesthesia, University of Helsinki, Women’s Hospital, Helsinki, Finland; P. Ravussin, Service d’Anesthésiologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland; G.E. Rudkin, University of Adelaide, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Department of Surgery, Woodville, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia; D. Schwendet, Institut für Anaesthesiologie, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany; J.W. Sear, Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics, The lohn Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford, England; R.W. Shaw, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Wales College of Medicine, Cardiff, Wales; M.M. Todd, Department of Anesthesia, College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA; M. Tverskoy, Department of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, The Rebecca Sieff Government Hospital, Safed, Israel; J. Van Hemelrijck, Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospitals K.U.L., Leuven, Belgium; H.R. Vinik, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Eye Foundation Hospital, Birmingham, Alabama, USA; J.P. Zacny, Department of Anesthesia and Critical Care, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA.
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Bryson, H.M., Fulton, B.R. & Faulds, D. Propofol. Drugs 50, 513–559 (1995). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199550030-00008
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199550030-00008