Skip to main content
Log in

Corticosteroid-Induced Adverse Events in Adults

Frequency, Screening and Prevention

Drug Safety Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Corticosteroids represent the most important and frequently used class of anti-inflammatory drugs and are the reference therapy for numerous neoplastic, immunological and allergic diseases. However, their substantial efficacy is often counter-balanced by multiple adverse events. These corticosteroid-induced adverse events represent a broad clinical and biological spectrum from mild irritability to severe and life-threatening adrenal insufficiency or cardiovascular events.

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the available data regarding the frequency, screening and prevention of the adverse events observed in adults during systemic corticosteroid therapy (topically administered corticosteroids are outside the remit of this review). These include clinical (i.e. adipose tissue redistribution, hypertension, cardiovascular risk, osteoporosis, myopathy, peptic ulcer, adrenal insufficiency, infections, mood disorders, ophthalmological disorders, skin disorders, menstrual disorders, aseptic necrosis, pancreatitis) and biological (i.e. electrolytes homeostasis, diabetogenesis, dyslipidaemia) events. Lastly, data about the prescription of corticosteroids during pregnancy are provided. This review underscores the absence of data on many of these adverse events (e.g. lipodystrophy, dyslipidaemia).

Our intent is to present to practitioners data that can be used in a practical way to both screen and prevent most of the adverse events observed during systemic corticosteroid therapy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I.
Table II.
Table III.
Fig. 1.
Table IV.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Walsh LJ, Wong CA, Pringle M, et al. Use of oral corticosteroids in the community and the prevention of secondary osteoporosis: a cross sectional study. BMJ 1996 Aug 10; 313(7053): 344–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. van Staa TP, Leufkens HG, Abenhaim L, et al. Use of oral corticosteroids in the United Kingdom. QJM 2000 Feb; 93(2): 105–11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Smyllie HC, Connolly CK. Incidence of serious complications of corticosteroid therapy in respiratory disease: a retrospective survey of patients in the Brompton hospital. Thorax 1968 Nov; 23(6): 571–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Quaade F. Undesirable effects of glucocorticoids. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1969; 500: 77–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. McKeage K, Goa KL. Budesonide (Entocort EC Capsules): a review of its therapeutic use in the management of active Crohn’s disease in adults. Drugs 2002; 62(15): 2263–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Jover JA, Hernandez-Garcia C, Morado IC, et al. Combined treatment of giant-cell arteritis with methotrexate and prednisone. a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2001 Jan 16; 134(2): 106–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. van Everdingen AA, Jacobs JW, Siewertsz Van Reesema DR, et al. Low-dose prednisone therapy for patients with early active rheumatoid arthritis: clinical efficacy, disease-modifying properties, and side effects: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2002 Jan 1; 136(1): 1–12

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Wassenberg S, Rau R, Steinfeld P, et al. Very low-dose prednisolone in early rheumatoid arthritis retards radiographic progression over two years: a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum 2005 Nov; 52(11): 3371–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Caporali R, Cimmino MA, Ferraccioli G, et al. Prednisone plus methotrexate for polymyalgia rheumatica: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2004 Oct 5; 141(7): 493–500

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Campieri M, Ferguson A, Doe W, et al. Oral budesonide is as effective as oral prednisolone in active Crohn’s disease. The Global Budesonide Study Group. Gut 1997 Aug; 41(2): 209–14

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Bar-Meir S, Chowers Y, Lavy A, et al. Budesonide versus prednisone in the treatment of active Crohn’s disease. The 877 Israeli Budesonide Study Group. Gastroenterology 1998 Oct; 115(4): 835–40

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Lieberman P, Patterson R, Kunske R. Complications of long-term steroid therapy for asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1972 Jun; 49(6): 329–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Thomas TP. The complications of systemic corticosteroid therapy in the elderly: a retrospective study. Gerontology 1984; 30(1): 60–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Saag KG, Koehnke R, Caldwell JR, et al. Low dose long-term corticosteroid therapy in rheumatoid arthritis: an analysis of serious adverse events. Am J Med 1994 Feb; 96(2): 115–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Walsh LJ, Wong CA, Oborne J, et al. Adverse effects of oral corticosteroids in relation to dose in patients with lung disease. Thorax 2001 Apr; 56(4): 279–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Rizzato G, Riboldi A, Imbimbo B, et al. The long-term efficacy and safety of two different corticosteroids in chronic sarcoidosis. Respir Med 1997 Sep; 91(8): 449–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Chibane S, Feldman-Billard S, Rossignol I, et al. Short-term tolerance of three days pulse methyprednisolone therapy: a prospective study in 146 patients [in French]. Rev Med Interne 2005 Jan; 26(1): 20–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Fardet L, Flahault A, Kettaneh A, et al. Corticosteroid-induced clinical adverse events: frequency, risk factors and patient’s opinion. Br J Dermatol 2007; 157(1): 142–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Shubin H. Long term (five or more years) administration of corticosteroids in pulmonary diseases. Dis Chest 1965 Sep; 48(3): 287–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Gabriel SE, Sunku J, Salvarani C, et al. Adverse outcomes of antiinflammatory therapy among patients with polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Rheum 1997 Oct; 40(10): 1873–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Akerkar GA, Peppercorn MA, Hamel MB, et al. Corticosteroid-associated complications in elderly Crohn’s disease patients. Am J Gastroenterol 1997 Mar; 92(3): 461–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Covar RA, Leung DY, McCormick D, et al. Risk factors associated with glucocorticoid-induced adverse effects in children with severe asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000 Oct; 106(4): 651–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Proven A, Gabriel SE, Orces C, et al. Glucocorticoid therapy in giant cell arteritis: duration and adverse outcomes. Arthritis Rheum 2003 Oct 15; 49(5): 703–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Conn HO, Poynard T. Corticosteroids and peptic ulcer: meta-analysis of adverse events during steroid therapy. J Intern Med 1994 Dec; 236(6): 619–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Schacke H, Docke WD, Asadullah K. Mechanisms involved in the side effects of glucocorticoids. Pharmacol Ther 2002 Oct; 96(1): 23–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Fardet L, Cabane J, Lebbe C, et al. Incidence and risk factors for corticosteroid-induced lipodystrophy: a prospective study. J Am Acad Dermatol. Epub 2007 Jun 18

  27. Stanbury RM, Graham EM. Systemic corticosteroid therapy: side effects and their management. Br J Ophthalmol 1998 Jun; 82(6): 704–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Benet LZ, Frey FJ, Amend Jr WJ, et al. Endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids in cushingoid patients. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1982 Nov; 16(11): 863–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Bergrem H, Jervell J, Flatmark A. Prednisolone pharmacokinetics in cushingoid and non-cushingoid kidney transplant patients. Kidney Int 1985 Feb; 27(2): 459–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Fardet L, Flahault A, Tiev KP, et al. Natural history of corticosteroid-induced lipodystrophy: a prospective study in 37 patients. Rev Med Interne. In press

  31. Fardet L, Cabane J, Kettaneh A, et al. Corticosteroid-induced lipodystrophy is associated with features of the metabolic syndrome. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2007 Jul; 46(7): 1102–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Sato A, Funder JW, Okubo M, et al. Glucocorticoid-induced hypertension in the elderly. Relation to serum calcium and family history of essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1995 Aug; 8(8): 823–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Williamson PM, Kelly JJ, Whitworth JA. Dose-response relationships and mineralocorticoid activity in cortisol-induced hypertension in humans. J Hypertens Suppl 1996 Dec; 14(5): S37–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Kelly JJ, Mangos G, Williamson PM, et al. Cortisol and hypertension. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol Suppl 1998 Nov; 25: S51–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Whitworth JA, Schyvens CG, Zhang Y, et al. Glucocorticoid-induced hypertension: from mouse to man. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2001 Dec; 28(12): 993–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Whitworth JA, Gordon D, Andrews J, et al. The hypertensive effect of synthetic glucocorticoids in man: role of sodium and volume. J Hypertens 1989 Jul; 7(7): 537–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Truhan AP, Ahmed AR. Corticosteroids: a review with emphasis on complications of prolonged systemic therapy. Ann Allergy 1989 May; 62(5): 375–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Whitworth JA, Kelly JJ. Evidence that high dose cortisol-induced Na+ retention in man is not mediated by the mineralocorticoid receptor. J Endocrinol Invest 1995 Jul–Aug; 18(7): 586–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Montrella-Waybill M, Clore JN, Schoolwerth AC, et al. Evidence that high dose cortisol-induced Na+ retention in man is not mediated by the mineralocorticoid receptor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991 May; 72(5): 1060–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Souverein PC, Berard A, Van Staa TP, et al. Use of oral glucocorticoids and risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease in a population based case-control study. Heart 2004 Aug; 90(8): 859–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Wei L, MacDonald TM, Walker BR. Taking glucocorticoids by prescription is associated with subsequent cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med 2004 Nov 16; 141(10): 764–70

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Erstad BL. Severe cardiovascular adverse effects in association with acute, high-dose corticosteroid administration. DICP 1989 Dec; 23(12): 1019–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Tvede N, Nielsen LP, Andersen V. Bradycardia after high-dose intravenous methylprednisolone therapy. Scand J Rheumatol 1986; 15(3): 302–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Fujimoto S, Kondoh H, Yamamoto Y, et al. Holter electrocardiogram monitoring in nephrotic patients during methylprednisolone pulse therapy. Am J Nephrol 1990; 10(3): 231–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Bonnotte B, Chauffert B, Martin F, et al. Side-effects of high-dose intravenous (pulse) methylprednisolone therapy cured by potassium infusion [letter]. Br J Rheumatol 1998 Jan; 37(1): 109

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Gallant C, Kenny P. Oral glucocorticoids and their complications. A review. J Am Acad Dermatol 1986 Feb; 14 (2 Pt 1): 161–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. van der Voort DJ, Geusens PP, Dinant GJ. A cross-sectional study of postmenopausal women found an association between osteoporosis and past gastric surgery or oral corticosteroids. J Clin Epidemiol 2004 May; 57(5): 533–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Goldstein MF, Fallon Jr JJ, Harning R. Chronic glucocorticoid therapy-induced osteoporosis in patients with obstructive lung disease. Chest 1999 Dec; 116(6): 1733–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Van Staa TP, Laan RF, Barton IP, et al. Bone density threshold and other predictors of vertebral fracture in patients receiving oral glucocorticoid therapy. Arthritis Rheum 2003 Nov; 48(11): 3224–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Hajiroussou VJ, Webley M. Prolonged low-dose corticosteroid therapy and osteoporosis in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1984 Feb; 43(1): 24–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Michel BA, Bloch DA, Fries JF. Predictors of fractures in early rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1991 Jun; 18(6): 804–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Pearce G, Ryan PF, Delmas PD, et al. The deleterious effects of low-dose corticosteroids on bone density in patients with 878 polymyalgia rheumatica. Br J Rheumatol 1998 Mar; 37(3): 292–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. LoCascio V, Bonucci E, Imbimbo B, et al. Bone loss in response to long-term glucocorticoid therapy. Bone Miner 1990 Jan; 8(1): 39–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Laan RF, van Riel PL, van de Putte LB, et al. Low-dose prednisone induces rapid reversible axial bone loss in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, controlled study. Ann Intern Med 1993 Nov 15; 119(10): 963–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Cooper C, Coupland C, Mitchell M. Rheumatoid arthritis, corti-costeroid therapy and hip fracture. Ann Rheum Dis 1995 Jan; 54(1): 49–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. McEvoy CE, Ensrud KE, Bender E, et al. Association between corticosteroid use and vertebral fractures in older men with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998 Mar; 157 (3 Pt 1): 704–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Adinoff AD, Hollister JR. Steroid-induced fractures and bone loss in patients with asthma. N Engl J Med 1983 Aug 4; 309(5): 265–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kaji H, Yamauchi M, Chihara K, et al. The threshold of bone mineral density for vertebral fracture in female patients with glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Endocr J 2006 Feb; 53(1): 27–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Reid IR. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000 Jun; 14(2): 279–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. ANAES. L’ostéoporose chez les femmes ménopausées et chez les sujets traités par corticoides: méthodes diagnostiques et indications. avril 2001 [online]. Available fom URL: http://www.unaformec.org/publications/kitunaf_01/recos/osteoporose.recos.pdf [Accessed 2007 Aug 28]

  61. Bell R, Carr A, Thompson P. Managing corticosteroid induced osteoporosis in medical outpatients. J R Coll Physicians Lond 1997 Mar–Apr; 31(2): 158–61

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Homik J, Suarez-Almazor ME, Shea B, et al. Calcium and vitamin D for corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; (2): CD000952

  63. Homik J, Cranney A, Shea B, et al. Bisphosphonates for steroid induced osteoporosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; (2): CD001347

  64. Amin S, Lavalley MP, Simms RW, et al. The comparative efficacy of drug therapies used for the management of corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis: a meta-regression. J Bone Miner Res 2002 Aug; 17(8): 1512–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Recommendations for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: 2001 update. American College of Rheumatology Ad Hoc Committee on Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis. Arthritis Rheum 2001 Jul; 44 (7): 1496–503

    Google Scholar 

  66. Yood RA, Harrold LR, Fish L, et al. Prevention of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: experience in a managed care setting. Archives Intern Med 2001 May 28; 161(10): 1322–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Hougardy DM, Peterson GM, Bleasel MD, et al. Is enough attention being given to the adverse effects of corticosteroid therapy? J Clin Pharm Ther 2000 Jun; 25(3) 227–1

  68. Ettinger B, Chidambaran P, Pressman A. Prevalence and determinants of osteoporosis drug prescription among patients with high exposure to glucocorticoid drugs. Am J Manag Care 2001 Jun; 7(6): 597–605

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Lane NE, Lukert B. The science and therapy of glucocorticoid-induced bone loss. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1998 Jun; 27(2): 465–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Humphrey EL, Williams JH, Davie MW, et al. Effects of dissociated glucocorticoids on OPG and RANKL in osteoblastic cells. Bone 2006 May; 38(5): 652–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Tsuda E, Goto M, Mochizuki S, et al. Isolation of a novel cytokine from human fibroblasts that specifically inhibits osteoclastogenesis. Biochemical and biophysical research communications. 1997 May 8; 234(1): 137–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Buckley KA, Fraser WD. Receptor activator for nuclear factor kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin: regulators of bone physiology and immune responses/potential therapeutic agents and biochemical markers. Ann Clin Biochem 2002 Nov; 39 (Pt 6): 551–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Hofbauer LC, Kuhne CA, Viereck V. The OPG/RANKL/ RANK system in metabolic bone diseases. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2004 Sep; 4(3): 268–75

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Khaleeli AA, Edwards RH, Gohil K, et al. Corticosteroid myopathy: a clinical and pathological study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1983 Feb; 18(2): 155–66

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Askari A, Vignos PJ, Moskowitz RW. Steroid myopathy in connective tissue disease. Am J Med 1976 Oct; 61(4): 485–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Naim MY, Reed AM. Enzyme elevation in patients with juvenile dermatomyositis and steroid myopathy. J Rheumatol 2006 Jul; 33(7): 1392–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Decramer M, Stas KJ. Corticosteroid-induced myopathy involving respiratory muscles in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992 Sep; 146(3): 800–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Falduto MT, Czerwinski SM, Hickson RC. Glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy prevention by exercise in fast-twitch fibers. J Appl Physiol 1990 Sep; 69(3): 1058–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Falduto MT, Young AP, Hickson RC. Exercise interrupts ongoing glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy and glutamine synthetase induction. Am J Physiol 1992 Dec; 263 (6 Pt 1): E1157–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Horber FF, Scheidegger JR, Grunig BE, et al. Evidence that prednisone-induced myopathy is reversed by physical training. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985 Jul; 61(1): 83–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Bielefeld P. Present status of cortisone myopathy [in French]. Rev Med Interne 1996; 17(3): 255–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Bowyer SL, LaMothe MP, Hollister JR. Steroid myopathy: incidence and detection in a population with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1985 Aug; 76 (2 Pt 1): 234–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Hasselgren PO. Glucocorticoids and muscle catabolism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 1999 May; 2(3): 201–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Larsson L, Li X, Edstrom L, et al. Acute quadriplegia and loss of muscle myosin in patients treated with nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents and corticosteroids: mechanisms at the cellular and molecular levels. Crit Care Med 2000 Jan; 28(1): 34–45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Messer J, Reitman D, Sacks HS, et al. Association of adrenocorticosteroid therapy and peptic-ulcer disease. N Engl J Med 1983 Jul 7; 309(1): 21–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Hernandez-Diaz S, Rodriguez LA. Steroids and risk of upper gastrointestinal complications. Am J Epidemiol 2001 Jun 1; 153(11): 1089–93

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Piper JM, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, et al. Corticosteroid use and peptic ulcer disease: role of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Ann Intern Med 1991 May 1; 114(9): 735–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Kos-Kudla B, Ciesielska-Kopacz N, Ostrowska Z, et al. Adrenal cortex function in asthmatic patients following the discontinuation of chronic therapy with systemic glucocorticosteroids. J Clin Pharm Ther 2003 Apr; 28(2): 103–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Pullar T, Sturrock RD. Adrenal response in rheumatoid arthritis treated with long-term steroids. Eur J Rheumatol Inflamm 1983; 6(2): 187–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Downie WW, Dixon JS, Lowe JR, et al. Adrenocortical suppression by synthetic corticosteroid drugs: a comparative study of prednisolone and betamethasone. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1978 Nov; 6(5): 397–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Salassa RM, Bennett WA, Keating Jr FR, et al. Postoperative adrenal cortical insufficiency; occurrence in patients previously treated with cortisone. JAMA 1953 Aug 15; 152(16): 1509–15 879

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Streck WF, Lockwood DH. Pituitary adrenal recovery following short-term suppression with corticosteroids. Am J Med 1979 Jun; 66(6): 910–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Henzen C, Suter A, Lerch E, et al. Suppression and recovery of adrenal response after short-term, high-dose glucocorticoid treatment. Lancet 2000 Feb 12; 355(9203): 542–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Claman HN. Glucocorticosteroids II: the clinical responses. Hosp Pract (Off Ed) 1983 Jul; 18(7): 143–6, 149–51

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Spiegel RJ, Vigersky RA, Oliff AI, et al. Adrenal suppression after short-term corticosteroid therapy. Lancet 1979 Mar 24; 1(8117): 630–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Hummel M, Warnecke H, Schuler S, et al. Risk of adrenal cortex insufficiency following heart transplantation [in German]. Klin Wochenschr 1991 Apr 4; 69(6): 269–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Walsh JP, Dayan CM. Role of biochemical assessment in management of corticosteroid withdrawal. Ann Clin Biochem 2000 May; 37 (Pt 3): 279–88

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Tordjman K, Jaffe A, Trostanetsky Y, et al. Low-dose (1 micro-gram) adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) stimulation as a screening test for impaired hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis function: sensitivity, specificity and accuracy in comparison with the high-dose (250 microgram) test. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2000 May; 52(5): 633–40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Suliman AM, Smith TP, Labib M, et al. The low-dose ACTH test does not provide a useful assessment of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in secondary adrenal insufficiency. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2002 Apr; 56(4): 533–9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Rasmuson S, Olsson T, Hagg E. A low dose ACTH test to assess the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1996 Feb; 44(2): 151–6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Dorin RI, Qualls CR, Crapo LM. Diagnosis of adrenal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med 2003 Aug 5; 139(3): 194–204

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Jerjes WK, Cleare AJ, Wood PJ, et al. Assessment of subtle changes in glucocorticoid negative feedback using prednisolone: comparison of salivary free cortisol and urinary cortisol metabolites as endpoints. Clin Chim Acta 2006 Feb; 364(1–2): 279–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Gozansky WS, Lynn JS, Laudenslager ML, et al. Salivary cortisol determined by enzyme immunoassay is preferable to serum total cortisol for assessment of dynamic hypothalamic—pituitary—adrenal axis activity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005 Sep; 63(3): 336–41

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Axelrod L. Perioperative management of patients treated with glucocorticoids. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2003 Jun; 32(2): 367–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Salem M, Tainsh Jr RE, Bromberg J, et al. Perioperative glucocorticoid coverage: a reassessment 42 years after emergence of a problem. Ann Surg 1994 Apr; 219(4): 416–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Byyny RL. Withdrawal from glucocorticoid therapy. N Engl J Med 1976 Jul 1; 295(1): 30–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Baxter JD, Forsham PH. Tissue effects of glucocorticoids. Am J Med 1972 Nov; 53(5): 573–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Staples PJ, Gerding DN, Decker JL, et al. Incidence of infection in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1974 Jan–Feb; 17(1): 1–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Myerowitz RL, Medeiros AA, O’Brien TF. Bacterial infection in renal homotransplant recipients: a study of fifty-three bacteremic episodes. Am J Med 1972 Sep; 53(3): 308–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Stuck AE, Minder CE, Frey FJ. Risk of infectious complications in patients taking glucocorticosteroids. Rev Infect Dis 1989 Nov–Dec; 11(6): 954–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Mok MY, Lo Y, Chan TM, et al. Tuberculosis in systemic lupus erythematosus in an endemic area and the role of isoniazid prophylaxis during corticosteroid therapy. J Rheumatol 2005 Apr; 32(4): 609–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Gaitonde S, Pathan E, Sule A, et al. Efficacy of isoniazid prophylaxis in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus receiving long term steroid treatment. Ann Rheum Dis 2002 Mar; 61(3): 251–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Hernandez-Cruz B, Ponce-de-Leon-Rosales S, Sifuentes-Osornio J, et al. Tuberculosis prophylaxis in patients with steroid treatment and systemic rheumatic diseases: a case-control study. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1999 Jan–Feb; 17(1): 81–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Jick SS, Lieberman ES, Rahman MU, et al. Glucocorticoid use, other associated factors, and the risk of tuberculosis. Arthritis Rheum 2006 Feb 15; 55(1): 19–26

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. American Thoracic Society. MMWR Recomm Rep 2000 Jun 9; 49 (RR-6): 1–51

  116. American Thoracic Society. Medical Section of the American Lung Association: treatment of tuberculosis and tuberculosis infection in adults and children. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986 Aug; 134(2): 355–63

    Google Scholar 

  117. Menzies D, Pai M, Comstock G. Meta-analysis: new tests for the diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection: areas of uncertainty and recommendations for research. Ann Intern Med 2007 Mar 6; 146(5): 340–54

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Winston DJ, Ho WG, Schiffman G, et al. Pneumococcal vaccination of recipients of bone marrow transplants. Arch Intern Med 1983 Sep; 143(9): 1735–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Spika JS, Halsey NA, Fish AJ, et al. Serum antibody response to pneumococcal vaccine in children with nephrotic syndrome. Pediatrics 1982 Feb; 69(2): 219–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Patel H, Macarthur C, Johnson D. Recent corticosteroid use and the risk of complicated varicella in otherwise immunocom-petent children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996 Apr; 150(4): 409–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Dowell SF, Bresee JS. Severe varicella associated with steroid use. Pediatrics 1993 Aug; 92(2): 223–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Adhami N, Arabi Y, Raees A, et al. Effect of corticosteroids on adult varicella pneumonia: cohort study and literature review. Respirology 2006 Jul; 11(4): 437–41

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Satoh N, Abe T, Nakajima A, et al. Recurrent varicella-zoster virus retinitis in a patient treated with systemic corticosteroids: ocular immunology and inflammation. 1998 Sep; 6(3): 185–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Salisbury DM, Begg NT. Varicella: immunisation against infectious diseases. London: HMSO, 1996: 251–61

    Google Scholar 

  125. Feher MD, Simms JP, Lant AF. History of chicken pox and steroid cards: a new warning? BMJ 1996 Mar 2; 312(7030): 542–61

  126. Vento S, Cainelli F, Longhi MS. Reactivation of replication of hepatitis B and C viruses after immunosuppressive therapy: an unresolved issue. Lancet Oncol 2002 Jun; 3(6): 333–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Magy N, Cribier B, Schmitt C, et al. Effects of corticosteroids on HCV infection. Int J Immunopharmacol 1999 Apr; 21(4): 253–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Tur-Kaspa R, Burk RD, Shaul Y, et al. Hepatitis B virus DNA contains a glucocorticoid-responsive element. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986 Mar; 83(6): 1627–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Vassiliadis T, Garipidou V, Tziomalos K, et al. Prevention of hepatitis B reactivation with lamivudine in hepatitis B virus carriers with hematologic malignancies treated with chemotherapy: a prospective case series. Am J Hematol 2005 Nov; 80(3): 197–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Hanania NA, Sockrider M, Castro M, et al. Immune response to influenza vaccination in children and adults with asthma: effect of corticosteroid therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004 Apr; 113(4): 717–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Lionakis MS, Kontoyiannis DP. Glucocorticoids and invasive fungal infections. Lancet 2003 Nov 29; 362(9398): 1828–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. O’Donnell MR, Schmidt GM, Tegtmeier BR, et al. Prediction of systemic fungal infection in allogeneic marrow recipients: impact of amphotericin prophylaxis in high-risk patients. J Clin Oncol 1994 Apr; 12(4): 827–34

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Marr KA, Carter RA, Boeckh M, et al. Invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipients: changes in epidemiology and risk factors. Blood 2002 Dec 15; 100(13): 4358–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Iriya SM, Capelozzi VL, Calich I, et al. Causes of death in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus in Sao Paulo, Brazil: a study of 113 autopsies. Arch Intern Med 2001 Jun25; 161(12): 1557

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Nucci M, Colombo AL. Risk factors for breakthrough candidemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2002 Mar; 21(3): 209–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Kontoyiannis DP, Vaziri I, Hanna HA, et al. Risk Factors for Candida tropicalis fungemia in patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2001 Nov 15; 33(10): 1676–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Gumbo T, Isada CM, Hall G, et al. Candida glabrata Fungemia: clinical features of 139 patients. Medicine 1999 Jul; 78(4): 220–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Yale SH, Limper AH. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in patients without acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: associated illness and prior corticosteroid therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 1996 Jan; 71(1): 5–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Gluck T, Geerdes-Fenge HF, Straub RH, et al. Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia as a complication of immunosuppressive therapy. Infection 2000 Jul–Aug; 28(4): 227–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Davidson RA, Fletcher RH, Chapman LE. Risk factors for strongyloidiasis: a case-control study. Arch Intern Med 1984 Feb; 144(2): 321–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Nucci M, Portugal R, Pulcheri W, et al. Strongyloidiasis in patients with hematologic malignancies. Clin Infect Dis 1995 Sep; 21(3): 675–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Fardet L, Genereau T, Poirot JL, et al. Severe strongyloidiasis in corticosteroid-treated patients: case series and literature review. J Infect 2007 Jan; 54(1): 18–27

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Infectious Disease Society of America, Transplantation ASoBaM. Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. MMWR Recomm Rep 2000; 49 (RR-10): 1–125, CE1-7

    Google Scholar 

  144. Carpenter Jr WT, Gruen PH. Cortisol’s effects on human mental functioning. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982 Apr; 2(2): 91–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Naber D, Sand P, Heigl B. Psychopathological and neuropsychological effects of 8-days’ corticosteroid treatment: a prospective study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1996 Jan; 21(1): 25–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Fauchais AL, Boivin V, Hachulla E, et al. Psychiatric complications of corticoid therapy in the elderly over 65 years of age treated for Horton disease [in French]. Rev Med Interne 2002 Oct; 23(10): 828–33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Hall RC, Popkin MK, Stickney SK, et al. Presentation of the steroid psychoses. J Nerv Ment Dis 1979 Apr; 167(4): 229–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Brown ES, Khan DA, Nejtek VA. The psychiatric side effects of corticosteroids. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999 Dec; 83 (6 Pt 1): 495–503

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Glaser GH. Psychotic reactions induced by corticotropin (AC-TH) cortisone. Psychosom Med 1953 Jul–Aug; 15(4): 280–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Satel SL. Mental status changes in children receiving glucocorticoids: review of the literature. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 1990 Jul; 29(7): 383–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Acute adverse reactions to prednisone in relation to dosage. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1972 Sep–Oct; 13(5): 694–8

  152. Wolkowitz OM. Long-lasting behavioral changes following prednisone withdrawal. JAMA 1989 Mar 24–31; 261(12): 1731–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Venkatarangam SH, Kutcher SP, Notkin RM. Secondary mania with steroid withdrawal. Can J Psychiatry 1988 Oct; 33(7): 631–2

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Campbell KM, Schubert DS. Delirium after cessation of glucocorticoid therapy. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1991 Jul; 13(4): 270–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Klein JF. Adverse psychiatric effects of systemic glucocorticoid therapy. Am Fam Physician 1992 Nov; 46(5): 1469–74

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Urban Jr RC, Cotlier E. Corticosteroid-induced cataracts. Surv Ophthalmol 1986 Sep–Oct; 31(2): 102–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Garbe E, LeLorier J, Boivin JF, et al. Risk of ocular hypertension or open-angle glaucoma in elderly patients on oral glucocorticoids. Lancet 1997 Oct 4; 350(9083): 979–82

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Garbe E, Suissa S, LeLorier J. Association of inhaled corticosteroid use with cataract extraction in elderly patients. JAMA 1998 Aug 12; 280(6): 539–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Nishigori H, Hayashi R, Lee JW, et al. Preventive effect of ascorbic acid against glucocorticoid-induced cataract formation of developing chick embryos. Exp Eye Res 1985 Mar; 40(3): 445–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Nagata M, Hikida M, Mibu H, et al. Effect of ascorbic acid 2-O-alpha-glucoside on hydrocortisone-induced cataract formation in developing chick embryos: II. Influence on glutathione and lipid peroxide contents in the lens. J Ocul Pharmacol 1994 Fall; 10(3): 537–42

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Tripathi RC, Parapuram SK, Tripathi BJ, et al. Corticosteroids and glaucoma risk. Drugs Aging 1999 Dec; 15(6): 439–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Tripathi RC, Kipp MA, Tripathi BJ, et al. Ocular toxicity of prednisone in pediatric patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Lens Eye Toxic Res 1992; 9(3–4): 469–82

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Spaeth GL, Rodrigues MM, Weinreb S. Steroid-induced glaucoma: A. Persistent elevation of intraocular pressure B. Histopathological aspects. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1977; 75: 353–81

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Katz HI, Prawer SE, Mooney JJ, et al. Preatrophy: covert sign of thinned skin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989 May; 20 (5 Pt 1): 731–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Sutton RD, Benedek TG, Edwards GA. Aseptic Bone Necrosis and Corticosteroid Therapy. Arch Intern Med 1963 Oct; 112: 594–602

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Fisher DE. The role of fat embolism in the etiology of corticosteroid-induced avascular necrosis: clinical and experimental results. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1978 Jan–Feb; 130: 68–80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Richards JM, Santiago SM, Klaustermeyer WB. Aseptic necrosis of the femoral head in corticosteroid-treated pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med 1980 Nov; 140(11): 1473–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Bomelburg T, von Lengerke HJ, Ritter J. Aseptic osteonecroses in the treatment of childhood acute leukaemias. Eur J Pediatr 1989 Oct; 149(1): 20–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Weiner ES, Abeles M. Aseptic necrosis and glucocorticosteroids in systemic lupus erythematosus: a reevaluation. J Rheumatol 1989 May; 16(5): 604–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Haajanen J, Saarinen O, Laasonen L, et al. Steroid treatment and aseptic necrosis of the femoral head in renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 1984 Oct; 16(5): 1316–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Patton PR, Pfaff WW. Aseptic bone necrosis after renal transplantation. Surgery 1988 Jan; 103(1): 63–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Yoshizawa Y, Ogasa S, Izaki S, et al. Corticosteroid-induced pancreatitis in patients with autoimmune bullous disease: case report and prospective study. Dermatology 1999; 198(3): 304–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Keefe M, Munro F. Acute pancreatitis: a fatal complication of treatment of bullous pemphigoid with systemic corticosteroids. Dermatologica 1989; 179(2): 73–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Jain R, Ramanan SV. Iatrogenic pancreatitis: a fatal complication in the induction therapy for acute lymphocytic leukemia. Arch Intern Med 1978 Nov; 138(11): 1726

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Oppenheimer EH, Boitnott JK. Pancreatitis in children following adrenal cortico-steroid therapy. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 1960 Dec; 107: 297–306 881

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Liddle GW. Effects of anti-inflammatory steroids on electrolvte metabolism. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1959 Oct 14; 82: 854–67

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Bartter FC. The role of aldosterone in normal homeostasis and in certain disease states. Metabolism 1956 Jul; 5(4): 369–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Nabarro JD, Stewart JS, Walker G. Clinical and metabolic effects of prednisone. Lancet 1955 Nov 12; 269(6898): 993–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Bunim JJ, Pechet MM, Bollet AJ. Studies on metacortandralone and metacortandracin in rheumatoid arthritis; antirheumatic potency, metabolic effects, and hormonal properties. JAMA 1955 Jan 22; 157(4): 311–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Pechet MM BF. Studies with a new series of steroids metacordracin and metacortandralone [letter]. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1955; 15: 851

    Google Scholar 

  181. Thorn GW, Renold AE, Morse WI, et al. Highly potent adrenal cortical steroids: structure and biologic activity. Ann Intern Med 1955 Nov; 43(5): 979–1000

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Morris GC, Egan JG, Keston Jones M. Hypokalaemic paralysis induced by bolus prednisolone in Graves’ disease. Aust N Z J Med 1992 Jun; 22(3): 312

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Ramsahoye BH, Davies SV, el-Gaylani N, et al. The miner-alocorticoid effects of high dose hydrocortisone. BMJ 1995 Mar 11; 310(6980): 656–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Yu EC, Wong SN, Yeung CY. Encephalopathy associated with steroid treated nephrotic syndrome. Int J Pediatr Nephrol 1987 Jul–Sep; 8(3): 135–46

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Rosenbach Y, Zahavi I, Rachmal A, et al. Severe hypokalemia after budesonide treatment for Crohn’s disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997 Mar; 24(3): 352–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Lieber IH, Stoneburner SD, Floyd M, et al. Potassium-wasting nephropathy secondary to chemotherapy simulating Bartter’s syndrome. Cancer 1984 Sep 1; 54(5): 808–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Gennari FJ. Hypokalemia. N Engl J Med 1998 Aug 13; 339(7): 451–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Gurwitz JH, Bohn RL, Glynn RJ, et al. Glucocorticoids and the risk for initiation of hypoglycemic therapy. Arch Intern Med 1994 Jan 10; 154(1): 97–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Fisher JE, Smith RS, Lagrandeur R, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus in women receiving beta-adrenergics and corticosteroids for threatened preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1997 Dec; 90(6): 880–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Feldman-Billard S, Lissak B, Kassaei R, et al. Short-term tolerance of pulse methylprednisolone therapy in patients with diabetes mellitus. Ophthalmology 2005 Mar; 112(3): 511–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Raul Ariza-Andraca C, Barile-Fabris LA, Frati-Munari AC, et al. Risk factors for steroid diabetes in rheumatic patients. Arch Med Res 1998 Autumn; 29(3): 259–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Almon RR, Dubois DC, Jin JY, et al. Temporal profiling of the transcriptional basis for the development of corticosteroid-induced insulin resistance in rat muscle. J Endocrinol 2005 Jan; 184(1): 219–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Andrews RC, Walker BR. Glucocorticoids and insulin resistance: old hormones, new targets. Clin Sci (Lond) 1999 May; 96(5): 513–23

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Fernandez-Miranda C, de la Calle A, Morales JM, et al. Lipoprotein abnormalities in long-term stable liver and renal transplanted patients: a comparative study. Clin Transplant 1998 Apr; 12(2): 136–41

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Becker DM, Chamberlain B, Swank R, et al. Relationship between corticosteroid exposure and plasma lipid levels in heart transplant recipients. Am J Med 1988 Nov; 85(5): 632–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Andrews WS, Shimaoka S, Sommerauer J, et al. Steroid withdrawal after pediatric liver transplantation. Transplant Proc 1994 Feb; 26(1): 159–60

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. McDiarmid SV, Farmer DA, Goldstein LI, et al. A randomized prospective trial of steroid withdrawal after liver transplantation. Transplantation 1995 Dec 27; 60(12): 1443–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Punch JD, Shieck VL, Campbell DA, et al. Corticosteroid withdrawal after liver transplantation. Surgery 1995 Oct; 118(4): 783–6; discussion 6–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Jefferys DB, Lessof MH, Mattock MB. Corticosteroid treatment, serum lipids and coronary artery disease. Postgrad Med J 1980 Jul; 56(657): 491–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. el-Shaboury AH, Hayes TM. Hyperlipidaemia in asthmatic patients receiving long-term steroid therapy. BMJ 1973 Apr 14; 2(5858): 85–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Picado C, Deulofeu R, Lleonart R, et al. Lipid and protein metabolism in asthma: effects of diet and corticosteroid therapy. Allergy 1999 Jun; 54(6): 569–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Boers M, Nurmohamed MT, Doelman CJ, et al. Influence of glucocorticoids and disease activity on total and high density lipoprotein cholesterol in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2003 Sep; 62(9): 842–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Seipelt IM, Crawford SE, Rodgers S, et al. Hypercholesterolemia is common after pediatric heart transplantation: initial experience with pravastatin. J Heart Lung Transplant 2004 Mar; 23(3): 317–22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Czeizel AE, Rockenbauer M. Population-based case-control study of teratogenic potential of corticosteroids. Teratology 1997 Nov; 56(5): 335–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Rodriguez-Pinilla E, Martinez-Frias ML. Corticosteroids during pregnancy and oral clefts: a case-control study. Teratology 1998 Jul; 58(1): 2–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Carmichael SL, Shaw GM. Maternal corticosteroid use and risk of selected congenital anomalies. Am J Med Genet 1999 Sep 17; 86(3): 242–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Fraser FC, Sajoo A. Teratogenic potential of corticosteroids in humans. Teratology 1995 Jan; 51(1): 45–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Levy R, Matitiau A, Ben Arie A, et al. Indomethacin and corticosteroids: an additive constrictive effect on the fetal ductus arteriosus. Am J Perinatol 1999; 16(8): 379–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Schatz M, Patterson R, Zeitz S, et al. Corticosteroid therapy for the pregnant asthmatic patient. JAMA 1975 Aug 18; 233(7): 804–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Aghajafari F, Murphy K, Willan A, et al. Multiple courses of antenatal corticosteroids: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001 Nov; 185(5): 1073–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Yildirim Y, Tinar S, Oner RS, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus in patients receiving long-term corticosteroid therapy during pregnancy. J Perinat Med 2006; 34(4): 280–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Abbasi S, Hirsch D, Davis J, et al. Effect of single versus multiple courses of antenatal corticosteroids on maternal and neonatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000 May; 182(5): 1243–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Population reference bureau [online]. Available from URL: http://www.prb.org [Accessed 2007 Jul 25]

  214. Morrison E, Crosbie D, Capell HA. Attitude of rheumatoid arthritis patients to treatment with oral corticosteroids. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003 Oct; 42(10): 1247–50

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Bae SC, Corzillius M, Kuntz KM, et al. Cost-effectiveness of low dose corticosteroids versus non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and COX-2 specific inhibitors in the long-term treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2003 Jan; 42(1): 46–53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Pisu M, James N, Sampsel S, et al. The cost of glucocorticoid-associated adverse events in rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005 Jun; 44(6): 781–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Laurence Fardet.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fardet, L., Kassar, A., Cabane, J. et al. Corticosteroid-Induced Adverse Events in Adults. Drug-Safety 30, 861–881 (2007). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-200730100-00005

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-200730100-00005

Keywords

Navigation