Potential factors involved in emphysema from gene-manipulated mice
| Cytokines | IL-1β 223, 224, IL-4 225, IL-13 199, IL-18 226, 200, IFN-γ 201, CCR6# 63, TNF-αR1#/TNF-αR2# 224, 227–229 |
| Growth factors | VEGF 171, LTBP-3¶ 230, LTBP-4¶ 231, FGF-23 232¶ |
| Transcription factors | STAT3¶ 233, Smad3¶ 234, 235, Nrf2#,¶ 236 |
| Enzymes | Lysyloxidase-like 1¶ 237, TIMP-3¶ 238, neutrophil elastase# 239, MMP-1 240, MMP-12# 215, α1-antitrypsin# 241, Cu/Zn SOD¶ 242, ENaC 243 |
| Ageing molecules | SMP-30¶ 244, SAM2# 245, Klotho (β-glycosidase)¶ 246 |
| Innate immunity | TLR4¶ 247–249, surfactant protein D¶ 250, 251 |
IL: interleukin; IFN: interferon; CCR: CC chemokine receptor; TNF-αR: tumour necrosis factor-α receptor; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; LTBP: latent transforming growth factor-β-binding protein; FGF: fibroblast growth factor; STAT: signal transducers and activators of transcription; Nrf: nuclear factor erythoid 2-related factor; TIMP: tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases; MMP: matrix metalloproteinase; SOD: superoxide dismutase; ENaC: epithelial sodium channel; SMP; senescence marker protein; SAM: senescence-accelerated mouse; TLR: toll-like receptor. # : tested against cigarette smoke; ¶: protective.