Summary of causes of tracheomalacia (TM), bronchomalacia (BM) and tracheobronchomalacia (TBM)
| Primary or congenital | ||
| Congenital idiopathic | ||
| Idiopathic TM/BM (may be genetic factors) | ||
| Congenital abnormalities of the cartilage | ||
| Dyschondroplasia/chondromalacia/ achondroplasia | Ehlers–Danlos syndromes | Marfan syndrome |
| Left bronchial isomerism with normal atrial arrangement | ||
| Congenital anomalies of the aerodigestive tract | ||
| Oesophageal atresia (with or without laryngeal cleft) | TOF | |
| Anomalies of respiratory tract development | ||
| Prematurity | Bronchopulmonary dysplasia | |
| Congenital syndromes associated with TM/TBM | ||
| Mucopolysaccharidosis (Hurler syndrome, Hunter syndrome) | CHARGE syndrome | VATER anomaly |
| Trisomy 9 | Trisomy 21 | Cri du chat syndrome |
| Smith's syndrome | Opitz syndrome | Goldenhaar syndrome |
| Cotello's syndrome | Neurofibromatosis | Allagille's syndrome |
| Arthrogryposis | Atelosteogenesis type 1 | 18–22 translocation |
| Antley–Bixler syndrome; 11p13 deletion; 16p13.3 deletion; 22q11 deletion | Partial trisomy of long arms of chromosomes 11 and 22 | Larsen syndrome and Larsen-like syndromes |
| Pfeiffer syndrome | Blackfan–Diamond anaemia | Williams–Campbell syndrome |
| Kniest dysplasia | Diastrophic dysplasia | DiGeorge syndrome |
| Deletion of 12q | Cariofaciocutaneous syndrome | Fryn's syndrome |
| Brachmann–de Lange syndrome | Camptomelic dysplasia | De la Chapelle dysplasia |
| Pierre Robin syndrome | Crouzon syndrome | Noonans syndrome |
| Chitayat syndrome | Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenital | Spondylocostal dysostosis |
| Late-onset Pompe's disease | Loeys–Dietz syndrome | Filamin A mutation |
| Osteogenesis imperfect | Hallermann–Streiff syndrome | |
| Secondary or acquired | ||
| Cardiovascular anomalies associated with TM/BM | ||
| Double aortic arch | Dilated cardiomyopathy | Pulmonary arterial sling |
| Right aortic arch | Aberrant right subclavian | Enlarged pulmonary veins |
| Left atrial hypertrophy | Enlarged left atrium | Severe PAH |
| Left to right shunting leading to enlarged pulmonary arteries | Tetralogy of Fallot with absent pulmonary valve syndrome | Abnormal take-off of the innominate artery |
| Skeletal anomalies associated with TM/BM | ||
| Scoliosis | Pectus excavatum | |
| Infections and inflammatory processes associated with TM/TBM | ||
| Severe tracheobronchitis | Protracted bacterial bronchitis | Stevens–Johnson syndrome |
| Chronic suppurative lung disease, including cystic fibrosis, primary ciliary dyskinesia, other causes of bronchiectasis | Relapsing polychondritis | |
| Tracheobronchial injury associated with TM/TBM | ||
| Button battery ingestion injury | Delayed removal of inhaled foreign body | Trauma |
| Medical procedures and surgery associated with TM/TBM | ||
| Prolonged intubation | Tracheostomy | TOF repair |
| Laryngotracheal reconstruction | Tracheoplasty | Heart transplant |
| Fetal balloon insertion for congenital diaphragmatic hernia | ||
| Tumours and cysts associated with TM/TBM | ||
| Primary tracheal tumour | Teratomas | Thymoma |
| Goitre | Lymphatic malformation | Lymphoma |
| Neuroblastoma | Haemangiomas | Bronchogenic cysts |
| Enterogenous cysts | Cystic hygromas | |
CHARGE: coloboma, heart anomaly, choanal atresia, retardation, genital and ear anomalies; VATER: vertebrae, anus, trachea, oesophagus and renal; PAH: pulmonary arterial hypertension; TOF: tracheo-oesophageal fistula.