Illustrative examples of biomarkers of cardiovascular effects
| Decreased heart rate variability |
| Changes in ECG depolarisation and repolarisation |
| Increased carotid intima-media thickness |
| Increased coronary artery calcification |
| Carotid artery stenosis |
| Increased aortic calcification |
| Increased arterial stiffness |
| Impaired vascular endothelial function |
| Impaired vascular fibrinolysis |
| Increased platelet adhesiveness or activation |
| Increased thrombogenicity |
| Increased markers of systemic inflammation, endothelial function, nitric oxide metabolism, oxidation etc. |