Figures
- Fig. 1—
The central role of inflammation in comorbidity is associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Inflammation appears to play a central role in the pathogenesis of COPD and other conditions that are increasingly being recognised as systemic inflammatory diseases. As part of the chronic inflammatory process, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α receptor polymorphisms are associated with increased severity of disease, possibly due to enhanced TNF-α effects. Also, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels can be increased directly by TNF-α and other cytokines. Elevated CRP and fibrinogen may be crucial in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease. Reactive oxygen species released as a result of COPD may enhance the likelihood of a patient developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes and osteoporosis. IL: interleukin; ?: unknown; +ve: positive.
- Fig. 2—
Schematic representation of how smoking might add to several mechanisms linking obesity to cardiovascular disease. Red arrows indicate an effect of smoking. HDL: high-density lipoprotein; TNF: tumour necrosis factor; ICAM: intercellular adhesion molecule; ROS: reactive oxygen species; IL: interleukin; CRP: C-reactive protein. Reproduced with permission from 46.
