Summary
Epidemiological data and results of toxicity studies in experimental animals indicate the possible health risk of diesel exhaust exposure. Acute effects of this exposure include odor, eye irritations, lung function decrements, cardiovascular symptoms, and some nonspecific effects. Most of these effects are reported among persons highly exposed to diesel exhaust. Lung function decrements are reported as chronic effects. Another chronic effect that has been studied extensively among occupationally exposed persons is lung cancer. In addition to lung cancer, but at a less frequent rate, an enhanced incidence of bladder cancer is reported. The carcinogenic action of diesel exhaust exposure is ascribed to effects of the soot particles, particle-associated organics, and/or gas phase compounds. Direct effects of the particle load may include retardation of lung clearance, inflammation, and increased cell proliferation. These effects were all demonstrated in rodents. The particles may also prolong the residence time of particulate organics or induce the generation of reactive oxygen species. These compounds are known to react with macromolecules, causing lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and/or activation of other genotoxic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). However, these results have not yet been confirmed in mammals in vivo. A direct interaction of particles with lung tissue is also suggested as a cause of cancer but a mechanism for this interaction has not yet been proposed. Organics associated with the particles are known to contain genotoxic properties attributable to PAHs and their derivatives. A number of these compounds are also identified as carcinogens in animal studies. However, it is not clear whether parent PAHs, their nitro-, oxy-, alkylated, or heterocyclic derivatives, or possibly other compounds are principally responsible for inducing tumors in the lungs of animals after diesel exhaust exposure. Furthermore, the mechanism of the bioavailability of these organics is not completely understood. The effects of gas phase constituents on the carcinogenic properties of the particles and/or particle-associated organics either have not been investigated or the findings have been inconclusive.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aben JMM, Schutter MAA, Onderlinden D (1991) Luchtkwaliteit, Jaaroverzicht 1990. Report no. 222101015 RIVM. Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Abramson M, Voigt T (1991) Ambient air pollution and respiratory disease. Med J Aust 154:543–553
Albert RE, Chen C (1986) US EPA diesel studies on inhalation hazards. In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McCellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 411–420
Amdur MO, Doull J, Klaassen CD (1991) Casarett and Doull's toxicology: the basic science of poisons. Pergamon, New York
Ames RG, 9Reger RB, Hall DS (1984) Chronic respiratory effects of exposure to diesel emission in coal mines. Arch Environ Health 39:389–394
Barfknecht TR, Andon BM, Thilly WG, Hites RA (1981) Soot and mutation in bacteria and human cells. In: Cooke M, Dennis AS (eds) Chemical analysis and biological fate: polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Battelle, Columbus, pp 231–241
Bauer H-D, Dahmann D, Fricke H-H (1991) Coulometric determination of diesel-engine emissions in non-coal mines. Staub Reinh Luft 51:319–325
Bender JR, Mullin LS, Graepel GJ, Wilson WE (1983) Eye irritation response of humans for formaldehyde. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 44:463–465
Boffetta P, Stellman SD, Garfinkel L (1988) Diesel exhaust exposure and mortality among males in the American Cancer Society prospective study. Am J Ind Med 14:403–415
Bonassi S, Merlo F, Pearce N, Puntoni R (1989) Bladder cancer and occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Int J Cancer 44:648–651
Bond JA, Wolff RK, Harkema JR, Mauderly JL, Henderson RF, Griffith WC, McClellan RO (1988) Distribution of DNA adducts in the respiratory tract of rats exposed to diesel exhaust. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 96:336–346
Bond JA, Johnson NF, Snipes MB, Mauderly JL (1990a) DNA adduct formation in rat alveolar type II cells: cells potentially at risk for inhaled diesel exhaust. Environ Mol Mutagen 16:64–69
Bond JA, Mauderly JL, Wolff RK (1990b) Concentration- and time-dependent formation of DNA adducts in lungs of rats exposed to diesel exhaust. Toxicology 60:127–135
Brightwell J, Fouillet X, Cassano-Zoppi A-L, Gatz R, Duchosal F (1986) Neoplastic and functional changes in rodents after chronic inhalation of engine exhaust emissions. In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McClellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 471–488
Brightwell J, Fouillet X, Cassano-Zoppi A-L, et al (1989) Tumours of the respiratory tract in rats and hamsters following chronic inhalation of engine exhaust emissions. J Appl Toxicol 9:23–31
Buiatti E, Kriebel D, Geddes M, Santucci M, Pucci N (1985) A case control study of lung cancer in Florence, Italy. I. Occupational risk factors. J Epidemiol Community Health 39:244–250
Carmichael PL, Jacob J, Grimmer G, Phillip DH (1990) Analysis of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content of petrol and diesel engine lubricating oils and determination of DNA adducts in topically treated mice by 32P-postlabeling. Carcinogenesis 11:2025–2032
Chan TL, Lee PS, Hering WE (1981) Deposition and clearance and inhaled diesel exhaust particles in the respiratory tract of Fischer rats. J Appl Toxicol 1:77–82
Chan TL, Lee PS, Hering WE (1984) Pulmonary retention of inhaled diesel particles after prolonged exposures to diesel exhaust. Fundam Appl Toxicol 4:624–631
Chesis PL, Levin DE, Smith MT, Ernster L, Ames BN (1984) Mutagenicity of quinones: pathways of metabolic activation and detoxification. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 81:1696–1700
Ciccioli P, Brancaleoni E, Cecinato A, DiPalo C, Buttini P, Liberti A (1986) Fractionation of polar polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons present in industrial emissions and atmospheric samples and their determination by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr 351:451–464
Claxton LD (1982) The utility of bacterial mutagenesis testing in the characterization of mobile source emissions: a review. In: Lewtas J (ed) Toxicological effects of emissions from diesel engines. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 69–82
Clayton GD, Clayton FE (1987) Patty's industrial hygiene and toxicology. Wiley, New York
Damber LA, Larsson LG (1987) Occupation and male lung cancer: a case-control study in northern Sweden. Br J Ind Med 44: 446–453
Davies IL, Bartle KD, Williams PT, Andrews GE (1988) On-line fractionation and identification of diesel fuel polycyclic aromatic compounds by two-dimensional microbore high-performance liquid chromatography/capillary gas chromatography. Anal Chem 60:204–209
Diamond L, Cherian K, Harvey RG, DiGiovanni J (1984) Mutagenic activity of methyl- and fluoro-substituted derivatives of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a human hepatoma (HepG2) cell-mediated assay. Mutat Res 136:65–72
Dutcher JS, Sun JD, Lopez JA, Wolf I, Wolff RK, McClellan RO (1984) Generation and characterization of radiolabelled diesel exhaust. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 45:491–498
Edling C, Anjou CG, Axelson O, Kling H (1987) Mortality among personnel exposed to diesel exhaust. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 59:559–565
Friedrich K, Krause M, Kummer G (1990) Untersuchungen zur Beurteilung lungenfunktionsdiagnostischer Parameter bei Dieselabgasexponierten unter Tage. Z Erkr Atmungsorgane 175:53–56
Froines JR, Hinds WC, Duffy RM, Lafuente EJ, Liu W-CV (1987) Exposure of firefighters to diesel emission in fire stations. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 48:202–207
Gallagher JE, Jackson MA, George MJ, Lewtas J (1990) Dose-related differences in DNA adduct levels in rodent tissues following skin application of complex mixtures from air pollution sources. Carcinogenesis 11:63–68
Gamble J, Jones W, Minshall S (1987a) Epidemiological-environmental study of diesel bus garage workers: acute effects of NO2 and respirable particulate on the respiratory system. Environ Res 42:201–214
Gamble J, Jones W, Minshall S (1987b) Epidemiological-environmental study of diesel bus garage workers: chronic effects of diesel exhaust on the respiratory system. Environ Res 44:6–17
Garshick E, Schenker MB, Munoz A, et al (1987) A case-control study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am Rev Respir Dis 135:1242–1248
Garshick E, Schenker MB, Munoz A, et al (1988) A retrospective cohort study of lung cancer and diesel exhaust exposure in railroad workers. Am Rev Respir Dis 138:820–825
Gerde P, Medinsky MA, Bond JA (1991a) The retention of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the broncheal airways and in the alveolar region. A theoretical comparison. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 107:239–252
Gerde P, Medinsky MA, Bond JA (1991b) Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. A reappraisal of their possible role in pulmonary carcinogenesis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 108:1–13
Glatt H, Henschler R, Phillips DH, Blake JW, Steinberg P, Seidel A, Oesch F (1990) Sulfotransferase-mediated chlorination of 1-hydroxymethylpyrene to a mutagen capable of penetrating indicator cells. Environ Health Perspect 88:43–48
Greene SA, Wolff RK, Hahn FF, Henderson RF, Mauderly JL, Lundgren DL (1984) Sulfur dioxide-induced chronic bronchitis in beagle dogs. J Toxicol Environ Health 13:945–958
Grimmer G, Brune H, Deutsch-Wenzel R et al. (1987) Contribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nitro-derivatives to the carcinogenic impact of diesel engine exhaust condensate evaluated by implantation into the lungs of rats. Cancer Lett 37:173–180
Gunnison AF, Sellakumar A, Snyder EA, Currie D (1988) The effect of inhaled sulfur dioxide and systemic sulfite on the induction of lung carcinoma in rats by benzo[a]pyrene. Environ Res 46:59–73
Gustavsson P, Plato N, Lidström EB, Hogstedt C (1990) Lung cancer and exposure to diesel exhaust among bus garage workers. Scand J Work Environ Health 16:348–354
Hammond SK, Smith TJ, Woskie SR, Leaderer BP, Bettinger N (1988) Markers of exposure to diesel exhaust and cigarette smoke in railroad workers. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 49:516–522
Harris JE (1981) Potential risk of lung cancer from diesel engine emissions. National Academy Press, Washington
Harris JE (1983) Diesel emissions and lung cancer. Risk Anal 3:83–100
Harvey RG, Dunne FB (1978) Multiple regions of metabolic activation of carcinogenic hydrocarbons. Nature 49:516–522
Heinrich U, Peters L, Funcke W, Pott F, Mohr U, Stöber W (1982) Investigation of toxic and carcinogenic effects of diesel exhaust in long-term inhalation exposure of rodents In: Lewtas J (ed) Toxicological effects of emission from diesel engines. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 225–242
Heinrich U, Muhle H, Takenaka S, et al (1986) Chronic effects on the respiratory tract of hamsters, mice and rats after long-term inhalation of high concentrations of filtered and unfiltered diesel engine emissions. J Appl Toxicol 6:383–395
Heinrich U, Mohr U, Fuhst R, Brockmeyer C (1989) Investigation of a potential cotumorgenic effect of the dioxides of nitrogen and sulfur, and of diesel-engine exhaust, on the respiratory tract of Syrian golden hamsters. Res Rep Health Eff Inst 26:1–7
Hoar SK, Hoover R (1985) Truck driving and bladder cancer mortality in rural New England. J Natl Cancer Inst 74:771–774
Howard AG, Mills GA (1983) Identification of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel particulate emissions. Int J Environ Anal Chem 14:43–53
Howard AJ, Mitchell CE, Dutcher IS, Henderson TR, McClellan RO (1986) Binding of nitropyrenes and benzo[a]pyrene to mouse lung deoxyribonucleic acid after pretreatment with inducing agents. Biochem Pharmacol 35:2129–2134
Howe GR, Burch JD, Miller AB, et al (1980) Tobacco use, occupation, coffee, various nutrients and bladder cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 64:701–713
Hsieh LL, Wong D, Heisig V, et al (1986) Analysis of genotoxic compounds in diesel engine emissions. In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McClellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 223–234
Huisingh J, Bradow R, Jungers, et al (1978) Application of bioassay to the characterization of diesel particle emissions. In: Waters MD, Nesnow S, Huisingh JL, Sandhu SS, Claxton L (eds) Application of short-term bioassays in the fractionation and analysis of complex environmental mixtures. Plenum, New York, pp 382–418
IARC (1984) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks of humans, vol 34. Polynuclear aromatic compounds. Part 3, Industrial exposures in aluminium production, coal gasification, coke production and iron and steel founding. IARC, Lyon
IARC (1989) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol 46. Diesel and gasoline engine exhausts and some nitroarenes. IARC, Lyon
Ishinishi N, Kuwabara N, Nagase S, Suzuki T, Ishiwata S, Kohno T (1986) Long-term inhalation studies on effects of exhaust from heavy and light duty diesel engines on F344. In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McClellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 329–348
Iwai K, Udagawa T, Yamaghishi M, Yamada H (1986) Long-term inhalation studies of diesel exhaust on F344 SPF rats. Incidence of lung cancer and lymphoma In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McClellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 349–360
Iyer V, Harris RE, Wynder RE (1990) Diesel exhaust exposure and bladder cancer risk. Eur J Epidemiol 6:49–54
Jacob J (1990) Sulfur analogues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (thiaarenes). Environmental occurrence, chemical and biological properties, Cambridge monographs on cancer research. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Jensen OM, Wahrendorf J, Knudsen JB, Sørensen BL (1987) The Copenhagen case-referent study on bladder cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health 13:129–134
Jensen LK, Klausen H, Elsnab C (1989) Organisk hjerneskade hos garagearbejdere efter lantidsudsættelse for dieseludsøidnings-gasser. Ugeskr Læger 151:2255–2258
Jongeneelen FJ, Leijdekkers CM, Henderson PT (1984) Urinary excretion of 3-hydroxy-benzo[a]pyrene after percutaneous penetration and oral absorption of benzo[a]pyrene in rats. Cancer Lett 25:195–201
Kahn G, Orris P, Weeks J (1988) Acute overexposure to diesel exhaust: report of 13 cases. Am J Ind Med 13:405–406
Kappus H, Sies H (1981) Toxic drug effects associated with oxygen metabolism: redox cycling and lipid peroxidation. Experientia 37:1233–1241
Keane MJ, Xing S-G, Harrison JG, Ong T, Wallace WE (1991) Genotoxicity of diesel-exhaust particles dispersed in simulated pulmonary surfactant. Mutat Res 260:233–238]
Kensler TW, Egner PA, Moore KG, Taffe BG, Twerdok LE, Trush MA (1987) Role of inflammatory cells in the metabolic activation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mouse skin. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 90:337–346
King LC, Kohan MJ, Austin AC, Claxton LD, Huisingh JL (1981) Evaluation of the release of mutagens from diesel particles in the presence of physiological fluids. Environ Mutagen 3:109–121
Lavoie EJ, Coleman DT, Geddie NG, Rice JE (1985) Studies on the mutagenicity and tumor-initiating activity of methylated fluorenes. Chem Biol Interact 52:301–309
Lee PS, Chan TL, Hering WE (1983) Long-term clearance of inhaled diesel exhaust particles in rodents. J Toxicol Environ Health 12:801–803
Lee KP, Trochimowicz HJ, Reinhardt CF (1985) Pulmonary response of rats exposed to titanium dioxide (TiO2) by inhalation for two years. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 79:179–192
Lehmann E, Rentel K-H, Allescher W, Hohmann R (1989) Gefährliche Arbeitsstoffe GA33: Messung der beruflichen Exposition gegenüber Dieselabgas. Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz, Dortmund
Lehmann E, Rentel K-H, Allescher W, Hohmann R (1990) Measurement of diesel exhaust at the workplace. Zbl Arbeitsmed 40:2–11
Levsen K, Schilhabel J, Puttins U (1987) Progress in the analysis of diesel soot particles. J Aerosol Sci 18:845–848
Lewis TR, Green FHY, Moorman WJ, Burg JR, Lynch DW (1989a) A chronic inhalation toxicity study of diesel engine emissions and coal dust, alone and combined. J Am Coll Toxicol 8:345–375
Lewis TR, Morrow PE, McClellan RO, et al (1989b) Establishing aerosol exposure concentrations for inhalation toxicity studies. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 99:377–383
Lies KH (1989) Unregulated motor vehicle exhaust gas components. Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg
MacCrehan WA, May WE, Yang SD, Benner BA (1988) Determination of nitro polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in air and diesel particulate matter using liquid chromatography with electrochemical and fluorescence detection. Anal Chem 60:194–199
Manabe Y, Kinouchi T, Ohnishi Y (1985) Identification and quantification of highly mutagenic nitroacetoxypyrenes and nitrohydroxypyenes in diesel-exhaust particles. Mutat Res 158:3–18
Martin WJ (1983) Nitrofurantoin: evidence for the oxidant injury for lung parenchymal cells. Am Rev Respir Dis 127:482–486
Mauderly JL (1992) Diesel exhaust. In: Lippmann M (ed) Environmental toxicants - human exposures and their health effects. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp 119–162
Mauderly JL, Jones RK, McClellan RO, Henderson RF, Griffith aWC (1986) Carcinogenicity of diesel exhaust inhaled chronically by rats. In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McClellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 397–410
Mauderly JL, Jones RK, Griffith WC, Henderson RF, McClellan RO (1987) Diesel exhaust is a pulmonary carcinogen in rats exposed chronically by inhalation. Fundam Appl Toxicol 9:208–221
McClellan RO (1986) Health effects of diesel exhaust: a case study in risk assessment. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 47:1–13
McClellan RO, Cuddihy RG, Griffith WC, Mauderly JL (1989) Integrating diverse data sets to assess the risks of airborne pollutants. In: Mohr U (ed) Assessment of inhalation hazards: integration and extrapolation using diverse data. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 3–22
Miyamoto Y (1986) Eye and respiratory irritant in jet engine exhaust. Aviat Space Environ Med 1104-1108
Nachtman JP (1986) Superoxide generation by 1-nitropyrene in rat lung microsomes. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 51: 73–80
Nakagawa R, Kitamori S, Horikawa K, Nakahima K, Tokiwa H (1983) Identification of dinitropyrenes in diesel-exhaust particles. Their probable presence as the major mutagens. Mutat Res 124:201–211
Netterstrøm B (1988) Cancer incidence among urban bus drivers in Denmark. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 61:217–221
NIOSH (1988) Carcinogenic effects of exposure to diesel exhaust. Current Intelligence Bulletin 50, NIOSH, Cincinantti, publication no. 88-116
Oelert HH, Florian T (1972) Erfassung und Bewertung der Geruchsbelästung durch Abgase von Dieselmotoren. Staub Reinhalt Luft 32:400–407
Paputa-Peck MC, Marano RS, Schuetzle D, et al (1983) Determination of nitrated polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate extracts by capillary column gaschromatography with nitrogen selective detection. Anal Chem 55:1946–1954
Pauluhn J, Thyssen J, Althoff J, Kimmerle G, Mohr U (1985) Long-term inhalation study with benzo[a]pyrene and SO2 in Syrian golden hamsters. Exp Pathol 28:31
Pederson TC (1981) DNA-binding studies with diesel exhaust particle. Environ Int 5:299–305
Pederson TC, Siak IS (1981) The role of nitroaromatic compounds in the direct-acting mutagenicity of diesel particulate extracts. J Appl Toxicol 1:54–60
Pool-Zobel BL, Schmezer P, Zeller WJ, Klein RG (1990) In vitro and ex vivo effects of the air pollutants SO2 and NOx on benzo[a]pyrene activating enzymes of the rat liver. Exp Pathol 39:207–212
Pott F (1991) Dieselmotorabgas - Tierexperimentelle Ergebnisse zur Risikoabschätzung. VDI Berichte 888:211–244
Pott F, Heinrich U (1988) Neue Erkenntnisse über die krebserzeugende Wirkung von Dieselmotorabgas. Z Gesamte Hyg 34: 686–689
Pott F, Heinrich U (1990) Relative significance of different hydrocarbons for the carcinogenic potency of emissions from various incomplete combustion processes. In: Vainio H, Sorsa M, McMichael AJ (eds) Complex mixtures and cancer risk. IARC, Lyon, pp 288–297
Raat WK de (1988) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and mutagens in ambient air particles. Toxicol Environ Chem 16:259–279
Rannug U, Sundvall A, Westerholm R, Alsberg T, Stenberg U (1982) Some aspects of mutagenicity testing of the particulate phase and the gas phase of diluted and undiluted automobile exhaust. Proceedings EPA Symposium, Chapel Hill, pp 3–16
Rannung U (1983) Data from short-term tests on motor vehicle exhausts. Environ Health Perspect 17:161–169
Rappaport SM, Wang YY, Wei ET (1980) Isolation and identification of a direct-acting mutagen in diesel-exhaust particulates. Environ Sci Technol 14:1505–1509
Reger R, Hancock J, Hankinson J, Hearl F, Merchant J (1982) Coal miners exposed to diesel exhaust emissions. Ann Occup Hyg 26:799–815
Rice JE, Rivenson A, Braley J, Lavoie EJ (1987) Methylated derivatives of pyrene and fluorene: evaluation of genotoxicity in the hepatocyte/DNA repair test and tumorigenic activity in newborn mice. J Toxicol Environ Health 21:525–532
Salmeen IT, Pero AM, Zator R, Schuetzle D, Riley TL (1984) Ames assay chromatograms and the identification of mutagens in diesel particle extracts. Environ Sci Technol 18:375–382
Sawyer TW, Chang K, Harvey RG, Digiovanni J (1987) Further investigations into the effect of non-benzo ring bay-region methyl substituents on tumor-initiating activity of polycyclic hydrocarbons. Cancer Lett 36:317–324
Schenker MB, Smith T, Munoz A, Woskie S, Speizer FE (1984) Diesel exposure and mortality among railway workers: results of a pilot study. Br J Ind Med 41:320–327
Schlesinger RB, Lippmann M (1987) Selective particle deposition and bronchogenic carcinoma. Environ Res 15:424–431
Schuetzle D, Lee FSC, Prater TJ, Tejada SB (1981) The identification of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) derivatives in mutagenic fractions of diesel particulate extracts. Int J Environ Anal Chem 9:93–144
Schuetzle D, Jensen TE, Ball JC (1985) Polar polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives in extracts of particulates: biological characterization and techniques for chemical analysis. Environ Int 11:169–181
Siemiatycki J, Gérin M, Stewart P, Nadon L, Dewar L, Richardson L (1988) Association between several sites of cancer and ten types of exhaust and combustion products. Scand J Work Environ Health 14:79–90
Silverman DT, Hoover RN, Alvert S, Graff KM (1983) Occupational and cancer of the lower urinary tract in Detroit. J Natl Cancer Inst 70:237–245
Silverman DT, Hoover RN, Mason TJ, Swanson GM (1986) Motor exhaust related occupations and bladder cancer. Cancer Res 46:2113–2116
Silverman DT, Levin LI, Hoover RN, Hartge P (1989) Occupational risks of bladder cancer in the Unites States: I. White men. J Natl Cancer Inst 81:1472–1483
Smith MA, Stayner L (1990) An exploratory assessment of the risk of lung cancer associated with exposure to diesel exhaust based on a study in rats. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Cincinnati, report no. 45226
Steenlage R, Rÿkeboer RC (1985) Oriënterende metingen van de emissie van schadelÿke en hinderlÿke organische verbindingen afkomstig van gemotoriseerd wegverkeer. TNO, Delft, report no. G1115
Steenland NK, Silverman DT, Hornung RW (1990) Case-control study of lung cancer and truck driving in the teamsters union. Am J Public Health 80:670–674
Stern FB, Lemen RA, Curtis RA (1981) Exposure of motor vehicle examiners to carbon monoxide: a historical prospective mortality study. Arch Environ Health 36:59–66
Sun JD, Wolff RK, Kanapilly GM, McClellan RO (1984) Lung retention and metabolic fate of inhaled benzo[a]pyrene associated with diesel exhaust particles. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 73:48–59
Sun Y (1990) Free radicals, antioxidant enzymes, and carcinogenesis. Free Radic Biol Med 8:583–599
Thor H, Smith MT, Hartzell P, Bellomo G, Jewell SA, Orrenius S (1982) The metabolism of menadione (2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone) by isolated hepatocytes. A study of the implications of oxidative stress in intact cells. J Biol Chem 257:12419–12425
Tokiwa H, Otofuji T, Nakagawa R et al. (1986) Dinitro derivatives of pyrene and fluoranthene in diesel emission particulates and their tumorigenicity in mice and rats. In: Ishinishi N, Koizumi A, McClellan RO, Stöber W (eds) Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of diesel engine exhaust. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, pp 253–270
Tong HY, Karasek FW (1984) Quantitation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel exhaust particulate matter by high-performance liquid chromatographic fractionation and high resolution gas chromatography. Anal Chem 56:2129–2134
Törnqvist M, Osterman-Golkar S, Kautiainen A, Jensen S, Farmer PB, Ehrenberg L (1986) Tissue doses of ethylene oxide in cigarette smokers determined from adduct levels in hemoglobin. Carcinogenesis 77:1519–1521
Ulfvarson U, Alexandersson R, Aringer L, et al (1987) Effects of exposure to vehicle exhaust on health. Scand J Work Environ Health 13:505–512
Vineis P, Magnani C (1985) Occupation and bladder cancer in males: a case-control study. Int J Cancer 35:599–606
Vogl G, Elstner EF (1989) Diesel soot particles catalyze the production of oxy-radicals. Toxicol Lett 47:12–23
Waller RE, Hampton L, Lawther PJ (1985) A further study of air pollution in diesel bus garages. Br J Ind Med 42:824–830
Wheeler RW, Hearl FJ, McCawley M (1981) An industrial hygiene characterization of exposure to diesel emissions in an underground coal mine. Environ Int 5:485–488
Williams RR, Steggens NL, Goldsmith JR (1977) Asocations of cancer site and type with occupations and industry from the Third National Cancer Survey interview. J Natl Cancer Inst 59:1147–1185
Williams R, Sparacino C, Petersen B, Bumgarner J, Jungers RHJ, Lewtas J (1986) Comparative characterization of organic emissions from diesel particles, coke oven mains, roofing tar vapors and cigarette smoke condensate. Int J Environ Anal Chem 26:27–49
Witschi HP (1988) Ozone, nitrogen dioxide and lung cancer: a review of some recent issues and problems. Toxicology 481:1–20
Woskie SR, Smith TJ, Hammond SK, Schenker MB, Garshick E, Speizer FE (1988) Estimation of the diesel exhaust exposures of railroad workers. I. Current exposures. Am J Ind Med 13:381–394
Wolff RK, Kanapilly GM, Gray RH, McClellan RO (1984a) Deposition and retention of inhaled aggregate 67Ga2O3 particles in beagle dogs, Fischer-344 rats, and CD-1 mice. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 45:377–381
Wolff RK, Obminski G, Newhouse MT (1984b) Acute exposure of symptomatic steelworkers to sulphur dioxide and carbon dust: effects on mucociliary transport, pulmonary function, and bronchial reactivity. Br J Ind Med 41:499–505
Wolff RK, Henderson RF, Snipes MB, Griffith WC, Mauderly JL, Cuddihy RG, McClellan RO (1987) Alterations in particle accumulation and clearance in lungs of rats chronically exposed to diesel exhaust. Fundam Appl Toxicol 9:154–166
Wong O, Morgan RW, Kheifets L, Larson SR, Whorton MD (1985) Mortality among members of a heavy construction equipment operators union with potential exposure to diesel exhaust emissions. Br J Ind Med 42:435–448
Wong D, Mitchell CE, Wolff RK, Mauderly JL, Jeffrey AM (1986) Identification of DNA damage as a result of exposure of rats to diesel engine exhaust. Carcinogenesis 7:1595–1597
Wynder EL, Dieck GS, Hall NEL, Lahti H (1985) A case-control study of diesel exhaust exposure and bladder cancer. Environ Res 37:475–489
Xu GB, Yu CP (1987) Deposition of diesel exhaust particles in mammalian lungs. A comparison between rodents and man. Aerosol Sci Technol 7:117–123
Yu M-L, Hites RA (1981) Identification of organic compounds on diesel engine soot. Anal Chem 53:951–954
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Scheepers, P.T.J., Bos, R.P. Combustion of diesel fuel from a toxicological perspective. Int. Arch Occup Environ Heath 64, 163–177 (1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00380905
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00380905