Factor | Reference |
Smoking | 17–23 |
Increased alcohol intake | 19–22 |
Vitamin D levels | 12, 16 |
Genetic factors | 20, 24–28, 29, 30 |
Treatment with corticosteroids | 1, 7, 8, 13–15, 31, 32, 33, 34–44 |
Reduced skeletal muscle mass and strength | 44–53 |
Low BMI and changes in body composition | 54–63 |
Hypogonadism | 64–69 |
Reduced levels of insulin-like growth factors | 70, 71, 72 |
Chronic systemic inflammation | 73 |
BMI: body mass index