Systemic effects of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
| Systemic inflammation |
| Oxidative stress |
| Activated inflammatory cells (neutrophils/lymphocytes) |
| Increased plasma levels of cytokines and acute phase proteins |
| Nutritional abnormalities and weight loss |
| Increased resting energy expenditure |
| Abnormal body composition |
| Abnormal amino acid metabolism |
| Skeletal muscle dysfunction |
| Loss of muscle mass |
| Abnormal structure/function |
| Exercise limitation |
| Other potential systemic effects |
| Cardiovascular effects |
| Nervous system effects |
| Osteoskeletal effects |