Corticosteroid pharmacokinetics |
Increased airway mucosal permeability |
Increased bronchial secretions |
Corticosteroid and β2-adrenergic receptor interactions |
Down-regulation of β2-adrenergic receptor function |
Inflammatory cell phenotypes |
Increased airway neutrophil or CD8+ lymphocyte numbers |
Reduced airway eosinophil numbers |
Cytokine and mediators levels |
Increased production of IL-4, IL-8, TNF-α |
Decreased production of IL-10 |
Nitrosative stress |
GR |
Overexpression of GR-β |
Reduced expression of GR-α |
Pro-inflammatory transcription factor activation |
Overexpression of NF-κB |
Overexpression of activator protein-1 |
Overexpression of signal transduction-activated factor |
Corticosteroid cell-signalling systems |
Reduced histone deacetylase activity |
Increased p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity |