HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS		QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: 31/5/1091    most recent 09031936.00063207v1 Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Permissions Request Permissions Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Web of Science (5) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Aguilaniu, B. Articles by Guénard, H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Aguilaniu, B. Articles by Guénard, H.

European reference equations for CO and NO lung transfer

¹ Hylab, Laboratory of Clinical Physiology and Exercise at Groupe Hospitalier Mutualiste, Grenoble, ³ Lung Testing Dept, Bordeaux University Hospital, ² Dept of Physiology, and ⁴ Bordeaux Mathematics Institute, University of Bordeaux 2, Bordeaux, France.

CORRESPONDENCE: H. Guénard, Service EFR, Hôpital du Haut Lévêque, 33604 Pessac, France. Fax: 33 557656036. E-mail: herve.guenard{at}chu-bordeaux.fr

Keywords: Ageing, capillary lung volume, carbon monoxide, diffusion, nitric oxide, pollution

Received: May 24, 2007
Accepted January 7, 2008

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 
The aim of the present study was to calculate reference equations for carbon monoxide and nitric oxide transfer, measured in two distinct populations.

The transfer factor of the lung for nitric oxide (T_L,NO) and carbon monoxide (T_L,CO) were measured in 303 people aged 18–94 yrs. Measurements were similarly made in two distant cities, using the single-breath technique. Capillary lung volume (V_c) and membrane conductance, the diffusing capacity of the membrane (D_m), for carbon monoxide (D_m,CO) were derived.

The transfer of both gases appeared to depend upon age, height, sex and localisation. The rate of decrease in both transfers increased after the age of 59 yrs. T_L,NO/alveolar volume (V_A) and T_L,CO/V_A were only age-dependent. The mean T_L,NO/T_L,CO was 4.75 and the mean D_m/V_c was 6.17 min^–1·kPa^–1; these parameters were independent of any covariate. V_c and D_m,CO calculations depend upon the choice of coefficients included in the Roughton–Forster equation. Values of 1.97 for D_m,NO/D_m,CO ratio and 12.86 min·kPa^–1 for 1/red cell CO conductance are recommended.

The scatter of transfer reference values in the literature, including the current study, is wide. The present results suggest that differences might be due to the populations themselves and not the methods alone.

The measurement of the transfer of gases through the lung is one of the few tests aimed at investigating alveolar function. The 1957 model and equation of Roughton and Forster 1 permitted the transfer of carbon monoxide through the aveolocapillary structure to be split into two resistances, one for the alveolar membrane (1/membrane conductance, the diffusing capacity of the membrane (D_m), for carbon monoxide (D_m,CO)) and the other for the blood reacting with the gas (1/_COV_c), where _CO is the red cell conductance at a concentration, set by the pioneers of the method, of 14.9 g·dL^–1 2 and V_c the capillary lung volume:

1/T_L,CO = (1/D_m) + (1/_COV_c) (1)

where T_L,CO is the transfer factor of the lung for carbon monoxide. The first technique used to solve this equation with two unknowns, D_m and V_c, was to measure two transfers of CO, one under conditions of normoxia the other under hyperoxia. Breathing O₂, by reducing _CO, lowers the T_L,CO. Guenard et al. 3 first published measurements of D_m and V_c using transfer factor of the lung for nitric oxide (T_L,NO) and T_L,CO and assuming _NO to be infinity, i.e. T_L,NO = D_m,NO. The transfer of CO is dependant upon both D_m and V_c with _CO as a finite value.

The relationship between D_m for nitric oxide (D_m,NO) and D_m,CO introduces a constant a: D_m,NO = aD_m,CO. Therefore, the measurement of NO transfer alone permits the calculation of D_m,CO and, by introducing the latter into the CO transfer equation, of V_c.

Most published reference values for D_m and V_c have been derived from the first two-step technique; one used the NO/CO method in a population of 127 healthy adults with a mean±SD age of 40±12 yrs 4 and another focused on NO transfer in a population of 130 adults, including 17 subjects aged >60 yrs 5. In the present study, the reference values for NO and CO transfer are derived from a larger population with a broad age range. Forster and co-workers’ 6, 7 1983 values for _CO, rather than the 1957 values, are used here, and an a of 1.97.

	METHODS

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 
Subjects
Nonsmoking persons (n = 303) without cardiovascular, pulmonary or systemic diseases, aged >18 yrs and of both sexes (142 females and 161 males) were included. The subjects were from two French cities; the main cohort was from Grenoble, in the Alps (altitude 300 m), and comprised 233 subjects aged 18–94 yrs; the other was from Bordeaux, near the Atlantic Ocean (altitude 30 m), and comprised 70 subjects, aged 20–70 yrs. These distant locations were chosen to check the reproducibility of the reference equations between different places. All of the subjects were middle-class workers, the youngest were students and the oldest retired. All were advised of the aim of the protocol and gave their informed consent. The protocol was approved by the ethics committee of the University Hospital of Bordeaux (Bordeaux, France). Ex-smokers were not included if aged <40 yrs. Subjects aged >40 yrs were included if they had stopped smoking for 10 yrs and had had a cigarette consumption of <5 packs·yr^–1. They were either sedentary or practised a sports activity (or heavy work) for >3 h·week^–1 (32% in Bordeaux and 28% in Grenoble). Individuals that were classified as obese class I (30<body mass index (BMI)<34.9 kg·m^–2) and without disease were also included. Obesity class II (34.9<BMI<39.9 kg·m^–2) and III (BMI >40 kg·m^–2) individuals were excluded from participating in the present study.

Measurement of NO and CO transfer
The procedures and materials used were similar in both cities. T_L,NO and T_L,CO were measured simultaneously during a single-breath manoeuvre using an automated apparatus (Medisoft, Dinant, Belgium). Subjects were in the sitting position and wore a nose-clip. A mixture containing 0.28% CO, 14% He and 21% O₂ balanced with N₂ was mixed with an NO/N₂ mixture (450 ppm NO in N₂; Air Liquide Santé, Paris, France). The final concentration of NO in the bag inspired was 40 ppm and that of O₂ was 19.1%. The apparatus was calibrated for gas fractions using automated procedures. The linearity of the analysers was factory checked. Linearity on site could be checked by dilution procedures, i.e. dilution of the NO mixture with the CO/He/O₂ mixture to check NO analyser linearity, or dilution of the CO/He/O₂ mixture with air to check CO analyser linearity. The screen pneumotachograph was calibrated daily using a 2-L syringe. The subject breathed through a mouthpiece and a filter connected to the pneumotachograph. When needed, they were requested to make a deep expiration. Then, at the onset of the following inspiration, a valve opened, allowing the subject to inspire the mixture during a rapid deep inspiration. A breath-hold of 4 s was then requested, followed by a rapid expiration. The first 0.8 L of expired gas was rejected and the following 0.6 L was sampled in a bag, which was automatically analysed for NO, CO and He. The delay in analysis of the sample of expired gas was constant at 35 s. Alveolar volume (V_A) during the apnoea was calculated using the He-dilution technique.

The measurements of T_L,NO and T_L,CO were accepted if two successive measurements of T_L,NO and T_L,CO were within 10% of each other. A third measurement was made if the two measurements were not within 10%. If this last measurement did not fit with one of the two previous measurements, the subject was considered unable to perform reproducible measurements and excluded from the cohort. The set of values from the NO and CO transfers with the greater T_L,CO was retained. D_m and V_c were calculated according to the equation of Roughton and Forster 1:

1/T_L,CO = 1/D_m,CO+1/_COV_c (2)

1/_NO was assumed to be negligible 3, i.e. T_L,NO = D_m,NO. D_m,CO was calculated as D_m,NO/a, where a = 1.97 following Graham’s law. In order to calculate V_c, the _CO reference values of Forster and co-workers 6, 7 were selected. These choices are considered in more detail in the Discussion section. The mean capillary oxygen tension was estimated to be 13.3 kPa (100 mmHg), taking into account the slightly lower than normal oxygen fraction of the inspired mixture. The haemoglobin concentration was not measured 8 but set at 13.4 g·dL^–1 for females and 14.6 g·dL^–1 for males 9, i.e. 1/_CO was multiplied by 14.9/13.4 and 14.9/14.6, respectively, since 14.9 g·dL^–1 was the haemoglobin concentration in the work of Roughton et al. 2, in agreement with the maximal O₂ concentration in the oxyhaemoglobin form of 0.2 mL·mL blood^–1 cited in the associated article 1. 1/_CO was 14.29 min^–1·kPa^–1 for females and 13.16 min^–1·kPa^–1 for males. As suggested by Stam et al. 8, the slight differences in haemoglobin concentration in a healthy population did not justify its measurement, since the recovered mean V_c was not significantly altered by the introduction of pre-set values for females and males. The total breath-holding time was calculated according to the method of Graham et al. 10, i.e. from the beginning of inspiration less the first 30% of the inspiratory time to the middle of the expiratory sample time.

Statistical analysis
A linear multiple regression model for each of the variables was tested for V_c, T_L,CO, T_L,NO (or D_m,CO), V_c/V_A, D_m/V_A and T_L,CO/V_A. T_L,NO and D_m,CO were proportional; both values are nevertheless reported in order to compare the present D_m,CO with others. The independent variables were sex (zero female, one male), age (in yrs), height (in m) and weight (in kg) or BMI (kg per m squared), which takes into account both of the previous variables. This analysis was performed on the whole population (Grenoble and Bordeaux). A further analysis was performed taking into account the city of origin of the subjects as an independent variable. The variables whose significance levels were >0.05 were rejected from the model. For a new observation of the independent variables, an interval of prediction at the level of 1– for the dependent variables was introduced. The prediction was directly obtained using the regression equation and estimates of its parameters.

	RESULTS

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 
The age distributions of females and males are shown in figure 1. The number of people included per decade was steady in the age range 20–70 yrs, and decreased in older people. The mean (range) total breath-hold time was 5.5 (4.9–6.1) s.

View larger version (16K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1— Age distributions of females () and males () in the sample population. The youngest subjects were 18 yrs of age; the 80-yrs category included a few subjects aged >90 yrs.

β_o = β_y+β_ad(A–59) (3)

The age threshold between the young and old populations was chosen to maximise the F-statistic of the model. BMI and weight were rejected as significant covariates; age, height and sex were retained. Males gave greater values than females of the same age and height. The three selected independent variables explained 70% of the variability. Figure 2 illustrates the biphasic effect of age on V_c in males. Table 1 gives the coefficient estimates of the bilinear age relationship for all variables in the whole population, and table 2 gives the estimates, taking the city of origin of the subjects into account. The city of origin exerted slight but significant effects on T_L,CO and T_L,NO, which were lower in Grenoble than Bordeaux (mean differences 8.5 and 13.2%, respectively). The intervals of prediction can be calculated taking into account all of the covariates (see Appendix; an Excel program for the calculation of these intervals is available on request).

View larger version (11K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 2— Boxplot showing capillary lung volume (Vc) as a function of age in males. Boxes represent median and interquartile range; vertical bars represent range (: outliers). There is a biphasic decrease in Vc as a function of age.

	DISCUSSION

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

T_L,NO, T_L,CO, V_c and D_m,CO are strongly dependent upon anthropometric variables; among them, age appears to be the most important. The changes in these variables are by-products of lung ageing. It is noteworthy that the loss in membrane conductance is nearly proportionate to that in V_c, since the ratio D_m,CO/V_c is independent of age.

Ageing decreases the performance of all organs and functions. The decay in lung transfer of both NO and CO appeared biphasic, relatively slow in young adults and then faster in the elderly, suggesting a reduction in the surface of the lung available for gas exchange. This biphasic decline was described by Georges et al. 11. The loss of lung surface is due to the coalescence of alveoli along with loss of alveolar walls 12. This loss is suggested to be accompanied by loss of pulmonary capillaries. Morphometric evidence on this point is scarce, apart from a study showing a 15% decrease in capillary density between the ages of 20 and 57 yrs 13.

The variables T_L,NO, T_L,CO, V_c and D_m,CO divided by V_A are independent of anthropometric variables except age. Large lungs at a given age have a greater exchange surface and a greater number of capillaries than small ones; thus, ratios of T_L,NO, T_L,CO, V_c and D_m,CO to V_A reduce the link to sized anthropometric variables. For example, V_c/V_A ratio decreases from 15 mL·L V_A^–1 at 26 yrs to 10 mL·L V_A^–1 at 73 yrs. Another advantage of relating the variables to V_A is to avoid sex differences, which are not related to lung tissue structural differences but to differences in the size of the lung for a given height and age.

Several studies have dealt with the subject of transfer coefficient of the lung for carbon monoxide (K_CO) and nitric oxide (K_NO) and their interpretation 14, 15. It would be beyond the scope of the present study to comment in detail on this subject; however, one point is that the basic assumption in obtaining reference values using the single-breath method is that subjects, or patients, perform a full inspiration and reach their maximal V_A (V_A,max). V_A,max depends upon the performance of inspiratory muscles and chest–lung mechanics. Subjects with the same anthropometric characteristics could have differing V_A,max. As a consequence, calculation of K_CO and K_NO by dividing T_L,CO and T_L,NO by V_A,max introduces an additive relative scatter, as observed in the present study. For example, the confidence interval (2SD) of T_L,CO for a male of 1.70 m in height and aged 50 yrs is 27%, whereas the mean T_L,CO/V_A is 35%. Conversely, it seems logical to divide the T_L,CO by a variable related to the amount of parenchyma in the lungs. Perhaps V_A,max is not a good choice.

What would happen if a subject with healthy lungs did not reach V_A,max? Several authors have performed measurements at various percentages of V_A,max 4, 8, 14–18. In brief, K_NO and K_CO decrease as a function of percentage of V_A,max, i.e. both variables increase at low V_A. On the one hand, D_m,CO and percentage V_A,max are linearly related in the range 60–100% V_A,max 4, and D_m,CO reaches a maximum at 100% V_A,max. On the other hand, V_c decreases negligibly between V_A,max and 60–80% V_A,max 16, 18. Therefore, the T_L,CO versus V_A relationship, which takes into account both D_m,CO and V_c, cannot be linear. If, nevertheless, a linear equation is fitted in a restricted range of percentages of V_A,max, a constant must be introduced into the equation 14, which is, in mathematics, an affine, not linear, function, i.e. for V_A = 0, T_L,CO>0. An exponential fit has also been proposed 15. Interpretation of K_CO and K_NO in patients unable to reach their V_A,max should be cautious, taking into account the percentage of the predicted reduction in V_A,max 14, 17.

Obese class I individuals with no significant medical history were included in the present study. Following this classification, the maximum BMI accepted was 34.9 kg·m^–2. Removing all obese class I individuals from the present study did not affect the results. Morbid (class III) obesity (BMI >40 kg·m^–2) consistently alters lung diffusion by increasing V_c and decreasing D_m 19. In moderate obesity, the alteration seems due to changes in V_A; the ratio T_L,CO/V_A can be elevated in people with a BMI of >30 kg·m^–2 20. In the present study, subjects with abnormal V_A were not included. Furthermore, there was no difference in T_L,CO/V_A ratio between underweight (BMI <18 kg·m^–2) and obese class I individuals (30<BMI<35 kg·m^–2); therefore, there was no objective reason for rejecting this population from the analysis. It is worth noting that these subjects, if clear from restrictive lung disease and sleep disturbances 21, should show normal T_L,CO and K_CO. This point is of interest since class I obesity has a high prevalence in many countries.

The independence of the D_m,CO/V_c and T_L,NO/T_L,CO ratios from any variable is noteworthy. The ratios T_L,NO/T_L,CO and D_m,CO/V_c are related:

T_L,NO/T_L,CO = a+(D_m,CO/V_cCO) (4)

This independence is not unexpected since morphometric analysis of human lung has shown that the alveolar and endothelial surfaces are related 22, with their reported ratio being 0.88. From a theoretical point of view, the D_m,CO to V_c relationship should intercept the axes at 0 as a significant value of 54.9 mL·min^–1·kPa^–1 was found, but not in a previous work from the same group 16. However significant, this intercept value is small compared to D_m,CO in adults and is probably due to the various assumptions made in the model (_CO and haemoglobin concentration). Glénet et al. 16, in a theoretical and experimental study, gave an interpretation of the T_L,NO/T_L,CO ratio, whose value would be inversely related to the product of the thicknesses of the alveolar membrane and blood capillary sheet. This ratio, being independent of anthropometric variables, itself appears as a morphometric characteristic of an individual. T_L,NO/T_L,CO looks easier to interpret than D_m,CO/V_c since it is dimensionless and does not require the introduction of the debatable values _CO and a. It would be of interest to know whether the T_L,NO/T_L,CO ratio remains stable throughout the life of a person.

As suggested by ZAVORSKY and Murias 23, two measurements of NO and CO transfer are sufficient to give reliable values. Since they calculate the mean of these two measurements, the results provided by the test with the greater T_L,CO were kept in the present study. The reference values for T_L,CO in the literature are scattered; equations from Chinn et al. 15 give lower values than those from Van der Lee et al. 4, which, in turn, give lower values than those of the present study. Zanen et al. 24 did not find a decrease in T_L,CO with age, probably because their study was restricted to adults aged <60 yrs. Looking at K_CO and K_NO, the differences between studies appear maximal in young adults for K_NO. Compared with the results of Van der Lee et al. 4, the present study gave results 21 and 14% higher in females and males, respectively. K_CO differences are much less than for NO, 9 and 6% for females and males, respectively.

These differences could be due to the method used, as well as differences in the populations studied. Van der Lee et al. 4 used low inspiratory NO fractions (7–9 ppm) along with long breath-holding periods, leading to NO concentrations in the range 200 ppb, requiring a high-resolution chemiluminescent apparatus. As this technique is feasible in healthy nonallergic patients, it seems preferable to use high fractions of NO and short breath-holds in patients in whom the endogenous NO fraction can be elevated. If a fraction of 5% is taken as the maximum participation of endogenous NO to the expired concentration, it could be proposed as a safe procedure that the expiratory NO fraction in patients should be not less than 1 ppm in order to avoid contamination by endogenous NO. The NO transfer values reported by Zavorsky et al. 5 in a healthy population using the same material and protocol as in the present study, are close to those reported here; however, the rate decrease with age was considered constant in the work of Zavorsky et al. 5. This slight difference could be due to the reduced number of old subjects in the latter study 5.

It has been shown, in healthy volunteers, that T_L,CO 9, 24 and T_L,NO 24 decrease slightly with breath-hold duration. In patients with distension, either chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthmatic, T_L,CO increased with breath-hold duration 9, 25. It is not proven that, even with a 10-s breath-hold, the T_L,CO reached its maximal value 9. Therefore, whatever the breath-hold duration, this fact should be integrated into the interpretation of T_L,CO or T_L,NO data in patients with distension. This lack of a stable value is probably due to a limitation of gas transport in the gas phase. Distension associated with poor ventilation in some part of the lung shifts the transition front between convection and diffusion of gases toward the mouth 26, increasing the path length for diffusion of CO and NO. It is worth noting that the ratio T_L,NO/T_L,CO is not altered by limitation of gas phase diffusion since both gases are involved in this limitation. In brief, it seems that a 40-ppm inspiratory NO fraction with a 4-s true breath-hold, i.e. a total breath-hold duration of 5–6 s, is a good compromise for routine applications, taking in to account the fact that pulmonary distension and/or heterogeneity in the distribution of ventilation might intervene, should be integrated into the interpretation of CO or NO transfer.

Methodological factors are often put forward to justify discrepancies between reference values; however, in the present study, the material and protocols used were the same in the two centres involved in the study. The differences in T_L,CO and T_L,NO between the two sites were, nevertheless, significant and permitted a partial reduction in the unexplained variability of the variables. Altitude might play a role as Grenoble is situated at an altitude of 300 m and the altitude of Bordeaux is close to sea level. The effect of 300 m of altitude on pulmonary diffusing capacity measurements is slight as there is only a minor difference in arterial oxygen tension between Grenoble and Bordeaux.

Another factor causing discrepancy between reference values is heterogeneity in the physical activity status of the subjects. At rest, trained subjects exhibit D_m,CO and V_c that are 20 and 25%, respectively, greater than in untrained subjects 27. Therefore, mean reference values are higher in populations with a high prevalence of physically active subjects. Patients are supposed, in the main, to be sedentary; therefore, the lower limit of the reference values should be used. There was no difference in anthropometric characteristics or the physical activity status of the subjects between the two cities; therefore, these factors were not responsible for the location being a significant determinant of pulmonary diffusion.

The level of chronic air pollution could affect lung function; Grenoble is located in an industrial valley in the Alps, whereas Bordeaux is situated in a flat environment near the Atlantic Ocean. It has been shown that air pollution in areas in which people are living is a determining factor in cardiovascular disease 28. Before reaching the blood, pollutants might damage the lung.

Before using reference values in a given city or place, it would be recommended to check the agreement of measurements made in some healthy representatives of that place with published reference values.

V_c and D_m were calculated using the Roughton–Forster model, with red cell CO conductance taken not from the early work of Roughton et al. 2 but from the more recent work of Forster and co-workers 6, 7. The reasons for this choice were two-fold. First, according to Forster and co-workers 6, 7, the latter work was performed at pH 7.4, whereas the former was performed at pH 8; therefore, R.E Forster, who was involved in both studies, recommends the equation of the latter work 7. Secondly, choosing the more recent equation gives D_m,CO in agreement with the theoretical value of the coefficient a, i.e. a ratio of D_m,NO (or T_L,NO) to D_m,CO of 2 16, whereas using the early equation 2 requires empirically changing a to 2.4–2.5 29. As pointed out by Hughes and Bates 30, the use of this more recent value for haemoglobin CO conductance leads to 15–20% smaller V_c and 15–20% greater D_m,CO. If consensus can be reached regarding the choice of a and haemoglobin CO conductance, all published reference values of V_c and D_m,CO could be compared after appropriate correction.

A mean capillary oxygen tension of 13.3 kPa (100 mmHg) was chosen in both centres, leading to the hypothesis that the alveolar oxygen tension was 14.6 kPa (110 mmHg) and the mean difference between alveolar and capillary tension 1.33 kPa (10 mmHg). A small change in this oxygen tension has only a small effect on V_c, e.g. a capillary oxygen tension of 12.6 kPa (95 mmHg) instead of 13.3 kPa (100 mmHg) would reduce V_c by 1.2 mL.

In conclusion, simultaneous measurement of the transfer factor of the lung for nitric oxide and carbon monoxide permits calculation of the diffusing capacity of the membrane for carbon monoxide and capillary lung volume. The present study determined regression equations for the transfer factor of the lung for nitric oxide and carbon monoxide in normal subjects, as well as for the derived variables diffusing capacity of the membrane for carbon monoxide and capillary lung volume. All values decreased nonlinearly with age, and also varied with sex and height, but continued to fall with increased age. There were differences between the two populations tested. The role of chronic pollution in alveolar function requires further study.

	APPENDIX

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 
The interval of prediction of T_L,CO for a new subject, based on their sex (S), age and height (H), is given by the formula:

E[T_L,CO|S;A;H]±t_(303;1–/2)·(C+C_AA+C_HH+C_A²A²+C_H²H²+C_AHAH) (5)

where E[T_L,CO is the predicted value for T_L,CO, t_(303;1–/2) is the (1–/2) quantile of the distribution with 303 degrees of freedom and C is the constants associated with age and height. For instance, for = 0.05, t = 1.968. The values of C differ for males and females (table 4).

Y*(A)±t_(303;1–/2)·(C+C_AA+C_A²A²) (6)

where Y*(A) is the predicted value and t_(303;1–/2) is the interval of prediction for the variables shown in table 5.

	Support statement

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 
S. Glénet is the recipient of a Pneumologie Développement (Paris, France) scholarship.

	Statement of interest

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 
None declared.

	FOOTNOTES

 
For editorial comments see page 918.

	REFERENCES

TOP ABSTRACT METHODS RESULTS DISCUSSION APPENDIX Support statement Statement of interest REFERENCES

 

1. Roughton FJW, Forster RE. Relative importance of diffusion and chemical reaction rates in determining rate of exchange of gases in the human lung, with special reference to true diffusing capacity of pulmonary membrane and volume of blood in the capillaries. J Appl Physiol 1957;11:290–302.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
2. Roughton FJW, Forster RE, Cander L. Rate at which carbon monoxide replaces oxygen from combination with human haemoglobin in solution and in the red cell. J Appl Physiol 1957;11:269–276.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
3. Guenard H, Varene N, Vaida P. Determination of lung capillary blood volume and membrane diffusing capacity in man by the measurements of NO and CO transfer. Respir Physiol 1987;70:113–120.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
4. Van der Lee I, Zanen P, Stigter N, van den Bosch JM, Lammers JW. Diffusing capacity for nitric oxide: reference values and dependence on alveolar volume. Respir Med 2007;101:1579–1584.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
5. Zavorsky GS, Cao J, Murias JM. Reference values of pulmonary diffusing capacity for nitric oxide in an adult population. Nitric Oxide 2008;18:70–79.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
6. Krawiec JA, Forster RE, Gottliebsen TW, Fish D. Rate of CO uptake by human red blood cells. Fed Proc 1983;42:993
7. Forster RE. Diffusion of gases across the alveolar membrane. In: Fahri LE, Tenney SM, eds. Handbook of Physiology. The Respiratory System. Gas Exchange. Washington DC, American Physiological Society, 1987; pp. 71–88
8. Stam H, Hrachovina V, Sttijnen T, Versprille A. Diffusing capacity dependent on lung volume and age in normal subjects. J Appl Physiol 1994;76:2356–2363.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
9. Pellegrino R, Viegi G, Brusasco V, et al. Interpretative strategies for lung function tests. Eur Respir J 2005;26:948–968.[Free Full Text]
10. Graham BL, Mink JT, Cotton DJ. Improved accuracy and precision of single-breath CO diffusing capacity measurements. J Appl Physiol 1981;51:1306–1313.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
11. Georges R, Saumon G, Loiseau A. The relationship of age to pulmonary membrane conductance and capillary blood volume. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;117:1069–1078.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
12. Thurlbeck WM, Angus GE. Growth and aging of the normal human lung. Chest 1975;67:3–6.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
13. Butler C, Kleinerman J. Capillary density: alveolar diameter, an approach to ventilation and perfusion. Am Rev Respir Dis 1970;102:886–894.[Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
14. Johnson DC. Importance of adjusting carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (D_LCO) and carbon monoxide transfer coefficient (KCO) for alveolar volume. Respir Med 2000;94:28–37.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
15. Chinn DJ, Cotes JE, Flowers R, Marks AM, Reed JW. Transfer factor (diffusing capacity) standardized for alveolar volume: validation, reference values and applications of a new linear model to replace K_CO (T_L/V_A). Eur Respir J 1996;9:1269–1277.[Abstract]
16. Glenet S, De Bisschop C, Vargas F, Guénard H. Deciphering the nitric oxide to carbon monoxide lung transfer ratio: physiological implications. J Physiol 2007 582:767–775.
17. Frans A, Nemery B, Veriter C, Lacquet L, Francis C. Effect of alveolar volume on the interpretation of single breath D_LCO. Respir Med 1997;91:263–273.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
18. Stam H, Kreuzer FJ, Versprille A. Effect of lung volume and positional changes on pulmonary diffusing capacity and its components. J Appl Physiol 1991;71:1477–1488.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
19. Oppenheimer BW, Berger KI, Rennert DA, et al. Effect of circulatory congestion on the components of pulmonary diffusing capacity in morbid obesity. Obesity 2006;14:1172–1180.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
20. Baylor P, Goebel P. Clinical correlates of an elevated diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide corrected for alveolar volume. Am J Med Sci 1996;311:266–271.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
21. Collard P, Wilputte JY, Aubert G, Rodenstein DO, Frans A. The single-breath diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide in obstructive sleep apnoea and obesity. Chest 1996;110:1189–1193.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
22. Weibel ER, Federspiel WJ, Fryder-Doffey F, et al. Morphometric model for pulmonary diffusing capacity. I. Membrane diffusing capacity. Respir Physiol 1993;93:125–149.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
23. Zavorsky GS, Murias JM. A small amount of inhaled nitric oxide does not increase lung diffusing capacity. Eur Respir J 2006;27:1251–1257.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
24. Zanen P, van der Lee L, van der Mark T, van den Bosch JM. Reference values for alveolar membrane diffusion capacity and pulmonary capillary blood volume. Eur Respir J 2001;18:764–769.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
25. Moinard J, Guenard H. Determination of lung capillary blood volume and membrane diffusing capacity in patients with COLD using the NO–CO method. Eur Respir J 1990;3:318–322.[Abstract]
26. Paiva M, Engel LA. Model analysis of gas distribution within human lung acinus. J Appl Physiol 1984;56:418–425.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
27. Glenet SN, de Bisschop CM, Dridi R, Guenard HJ. Membrane conductance in trained and untrained subjects using either steady state or single breath measurements of NO transfer. Nitric Oxide 2006;15:199–208.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
28. Miller KA, Siscovick DS, Sheppard L, et al. Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med 2007;356:447–458.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
29. Tahmane RM, Johnson RL Jr, Hsia CCW. Pulmonary membrane diffusion capacity and capillary blood volume measured during exercise from nitric oxide uptake. Chest 2001;120:1850–1856.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
30. Hughes JM, Bates DV. Historical review: the carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (D_LCO) and its membrane (D_M) and red cell (·Vc) components. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2003;138:115–142.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				B. Degano, M. Mittaine, P. Herve, J. Rami, N. Kamar, B. Suc, D. Riviere, and L. Rostaing Nitric oxide production by the alveolar compartment of the lungs in cirrhotic patients Eur. Respir. J., July 1, 2009; 34(1): 138 - 144. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. Degano, M. Mittaine, H. Guenard, J. Rami, G. Garcia, N. Kamar, C. Bureau, J.-M. Peron, L. Rostaing, and D. Riviere Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide lung transfer in patients with advanced liver cirrhosis J Appl Physiol, July 1, 2009; 107(1): 139 - 143. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Verbanck, Y. Kerckx, D. Schuermans, C. de Bisschop, H. Guenard, R. Naeije, W. Vincken, and A. Van Muylem The effect of posture-induced changes in peripheral nitric oxide uptake on exhaled nitric oxide J Appl Physiol, May 1, 2009; 106(5): 1494 - 1498. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) All Versions of this Article: 31/5/1091    most recent 09031936.00063207v1 Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Permissions Request Permissions Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in Web of Science Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Web of Science (5) Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Aguilaniu, B. Articles by Guénard, H. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Aguilaniu, B. Articles by Guénard, H.