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1 Klinik für Schlafstörungen, Bayerisch Gmain, Germany. 2 Zentrum für Innere Medizin, Philipps-Universität, Schlafmedizinisches Labor, Marburg, Germany
CORRESPONDENCE: J. Juhász, Klinik für Schlafstörungen, Reichenhaller Str. 20, 83457, Bayerisch Gmain, Germany. Fax: 49 8651770105
Keywords: continuous positive airway pressure, proportional positive airway pressure, sleep apnoea, sleep stages
Received: October 14, 1999
Accepted September 15, 2000
This
study was supported by a research grant from Respironics Inc., Murrysville,
USA.
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Abstract |
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 TOP Abstract MethodResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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Obstructive and mixed respiratory events could be completely abolished with both forms of treatment. This efficacy could be achieved at a significantly lower mean mask pressure during PPAP titration (8.45±2.42 cmH2O) compared to CPAP (9.96±2.7 cmH2O) (p=0.002). The mean minimal arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2) (82.8±6.5%) on the diagnostic night increased significantly (p<0.001) to an average Sa,O2 of 93.35±1.71% and 93.19±2.9% during CPAP and PPAP titration. Total sleep time, slow wave sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep increased significantly by the same amount during both CPAP and PPAP titration (p<0.001), while sleep stage nonrapid eye movement (NREM) 1 and 2 decreased. Six patients preferred the PPAP titration night, four patients did not have a preference, and two patients preferred CPAP.
The present data show that proportional positive airway pressure is as effective as continuous positive airway pressure in eliminating obstructive events and has the same immediate effect on sleep. The lower average mask pressure during proportional positive airway pressure implies potential advantages compared to continuous positive airway pressure. Proportional positive airway pressure presents a new effective therapeutic approach to obstructive sleep apnoea.
Although nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) represents the state-of-the-art therapy for obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) 1–3, more attention has recently been paid to unfavourable clinical effects and limiting factors, such as the intolerance of pressure 4, 5 patient compliance and interface difficulties 6–8. While bilevel positive airway pressure therapy may be effective at lower expiratory pressure 9, it was not found to be superior to CPAP with regards to long-term compliance 10. Despite the undeniable efficacy of these mechanical treatments, they do not provide an optimal pressure adjustment during a breathing cycle.
A new concept was conceived to optimize the airway pressure for comfort while compensating for all collapsing forces in proportion to the airflow generated by the patient (proportional positive airway pressure (PPAP)) 11. In a recent article Farré et al. 12 published a similar approach using a flow-dependent positive airway pressure. They found that adopting the applied nasal pressure to the instantaneous flow was effective in a model as well as to treat sleep disordered breathing in nine patients. However, they did not complete a whole night of study and did not evaluate the effects on sleep.
In a randomized crossover prospective study PPAP therapy in patients with OSAS to CPAP treatment was compared. The aim of the study was to assess whether: 1) PPAP is an effective method to treat obstructive sleep apnoea, and, 2) if the dynamically changing pressure disturbs sleep with special regard to pressure relief during exhalation.
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Method |
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TOPAbstractMethodResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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). Sleep disordered breathing was assessed
during the diagnostic polysomnography (baseline measurement) in
the sleep laboratory preceding the titration nights. Patients gave written
informed consent to participate in the study. The ethics committee of the
University of Marburg approved the study protocol.
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The goal of PPAP is to provide a base pressure (Pbasal) to overcome static collapsing forces (dependent on position,
skeletal structure, shape and tone of airway tissue) while compensating
for variable collapsing forces (dependent on respiratory efforts, flow
effects) by raising the pressure during inspiration, as well as lowering
the pressure below Pbasal to provide comfort during exhalation,
in proportion to flow rate. PPAP is intended to provide positive airway pressure
to a patient via a nasal interface to treat OSAS. The pressure delivered
to the patient is a function of the patient flow rate. This function can be
described as follows:
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| (002) |
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IPAP/Flowinsp); Gainexhale is the constant used during exhalation (negative
flow) to reduce pressure based on the flow rate (=PR/Flowexp). Inspiratory pressure difference over Pbasal (IPAP) and pressure relief below Pbasal (PR) values were set manually duringtitration. Gain has values
in the range of 0–10 cmH2O·L–1·s–1 for inspiration and has values in the range of 0–4 cmH2O·L–1·s–1 for exhalation.
Figure 1a shows a typical
patient flow pattern and the resulting pressure delivered with the inspiratory
gain. With different gain settings, any number of waveforms can be generated.
Depending on the gain settings, the pressure waveform can follow any optional
curve both for inspiration and exhalation (fig. 1b).
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IPAP) provides a pressure
level necessary to overcome dynamic collapsing forces during inspiration (equivalent
to CPAP level and IPAP during bilevel therapy). A temporary pressure
relief (PR) can be set to lower the mask pressure below Pbasal that augments exhalation at the starting phase of expiration (fig. 2). The expiratory flow is associated
with a positive expiratory pressure gradient in the airways that results in
a dynamic support to the upper airways preventing any dynamic collapsing forces
during exhalation.
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Titration of proportional positive airway pressure
The titration of the effective pressure setting was accomplished manually.
First, an effective CPAP to abolish apnoeas and hypopnoeas and then an expiratory
PR (2–3 cmH2O) to facilitate exhalation
were adjusted for. After ensuring that no further occlusion occurred, the Pbasal was gradually decreased to a minimally effective expiratory
level, with a synchronous adjustment of IPAP to maintain the effective
maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) (fig. 2
).
Study design and measurements
All patients underwent a diagnostic polysomnography followed by the CPAP
or PPAP titration, which was performed in a random order. Patients were unaware
of the actual mode that was used. Treatment was accomplished with the PPAP
device designed for this clinical study, which could be used either in CPAP
or in PPAP mode. PPAP and CPAP titration was carried out manually according
to the polysomnographic recording. The criterion for an effective pressure
adjustment was abolishing all obstructive events including snoring, apnoeas/hypopnoeas
as well as episodes of flow limitation, assessed visually as a flattening
of the flow tracings during inspiration. The following parameters were recorded
continuously on chart recorders (ED-16 and UD-8, Madaus
Schwarzer, Munich, Germany) and on a personal computer (PC)
two electroencephalogram (EEG) leads (C3/A2, C4/A1),
two electro-oculogram (EOG) leads, two electromyogram (EMG)
leads (chin, tibialis), mask pressure, snoring sounds, thoracic
and abdominal breathing movements by respiratory inductive plethysmography (Respitrace®,
Ambulatory Monitoring, Inc., Ardsley, USA), and pulse oximetry (Biox
3700, Ohmeda, Boulder, USA). Airflow was monitored using the pneumotachograph
of the PPAP-machine. After each night, the patients were asked to fill
out a questionnaire to score their subjective feelings regarding the PAP titration.
Data collection and analysis
Primary outcome measure was the effectiveness in terms of the respiratory
disturbance index (RDI). Primary outcome measures for the effects
on sleep were total sleep time (TST), wake time (WT),
sleep stage distribution and the number of arousals. Secondary measures consisted
of mean effective mask pressure, obstructive and central respiratory events,
mean arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2)
and a subclassification of arousals related to obstructive events, nonobstructive
events (central events and spontaneous arousal) or periodic limb
movements (PLM).
Polysomnography and sleep stage scoring were completed according to the criteria by Rechtschaffen and Kales [14]. RDI, obstructive and nonobstructive events (apnoeas, hypopnoeas) were scored visually and were assessed separately both for the whole titration night and for the time period under effective PAP, and were compared with data from the diagnostic night. The mean values of TST, WT, nonrapid eye movement (NREM) 1, 2, 3–4 sleep stages and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep time from diagnostic and both titration nights were compared by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Sleep time, RDI and arousal indices related to different respiratory events were also calculated during the periods of effective pressure and were analysed by ANOVA.
The differences in various pressure settings (CPAP versus Pbasal and MIP during PPAP) were analysed and mean mask pressures using a two-tailed t-test. Mean mask pressure both for CPAP and PPAP titration was calculated as the integral of the product of the pressure and time over 20 consecutive regular breathing cycles in stage 2 NREM sleep. The breathing cycles were selected randomly in identical body position during PPAP versus CPAP titration.
The mean values of the Sa,O2 for diagnostic and treatment nights were compared. The average values of minimal Sa,O2 during the diagnostic night were collected. For both CPAP and PPAP titration nights, the mean Sa,O2 values were calculated by integrating the product of Sa,O2 and time during the entire period under effective pressure. The differences were evaluated using a two-tailed t-test.
The strength of the linear relationship between the variables was analysed by the Pearson product moment correlation. Statistical significance was assumed at p<0.05.
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Results |
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TOPAbstractMethodResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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The mean minimal Sa,O2 during baseline (82.83±6.46%) increased significantly (p<0.001) to an average Sa,O2 of 93.35±1.71% and 93.19±1.56% during the time period under effective pressure with CPAP and PPAP respectively.
Effective pressure levels
The overall pressure settings for each patient are shown in table 2. The effective mask pressure was 10.33±2.9 cmH2O (mean±sd) for the CPAP titration nights.
The mean base pressure (EPAP) was 8.83±2.66 cmH2O,
the mean IPAP was 1.54±0.84 cmH2O and the
mean pressure relief was –2.25±0.34 cmH2O for
the PPAP titration nights. The mean difference in Pbasal
during CPAP versus PPAP titration nights was 1.5± 1.31 cmH2O (p<0.002). The MIP during PPAP titration (the algebraic
sum of Pbasal and IPAP) was the same on average (10.38±2.77 cmH2O) as pressure settings during CPAP titration (10.33±2.9 cmH2O). However, the mean mask pressure during PPAP titration (8.45±2.42 cmH2O) was significantly lower compared to CPAP (9.96±2.7 cmH2O) the mean difference being 1.51±1.3 cmH2O (p=0.002) (fig. 3). The lower mean mask pressure showed a positive
correlation with the lower Pbasal (r=0.98)
during PPAP. The differences in mean mask pressure during CPAP versus PPAP titration correlated strongly with differences in CPAP settings versus Pbasal (r=0.96). The standardized
skewness and kurtosis values for the sample were within the expected range
for data from a normal distribution.
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). The changes in NREM stage 2, slow
wave sleep and REM sleep during both titration nights were significant (p<0.001)
compared to the diagnostic night, but there was no difference between CPAP
and PPAP. Sleep time under effective mask pressure was243.77±67.95 min
during CPAP titration and 199.71±100.52 min during PPAP titration (p=0.37).
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Patients' judgement
Six out of the twelve patients preferred the second titration night, two
patients chose the first titration night and four patients did not find any
difference between the titration nights. Six patients preferred PPAP titration,
two patients CPAP titration and four patients did not have a preference.
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Discussion |
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TOPAbstractMethodResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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The attention of clinicians has recently been gradually drawn to some clinical problems related to the use of CPAP 4, 8. The problem of unnecessarily high expiratory pressure during CPAP was addressed by introducing bilevel PAP 9. The undesirable cardiorespiratory consequences of CPAP in patients with underlying heart and/or respiratory disease has been published 5. Although both CPAP and bilevel PAP therapy is effective and well tolerated by the majority ofthe patients, it is still an unsolved problem that current mechanical therapies do not provide the minimal pressure wave form during the breathing cycle, sufficient to overcome airway collapse. The concept of a flow-dependent PAP was the first approach in taking the advantage of variable collapsing forces to reduce the pressure both during inspiration and expiration.
Approaches to overcome upper airway obstruction
CPAP acts to avoid airway narrowing by supplying positive pressure to mechanically
splint the airway 15, 16. This splinting pressure is constant
and is optimized during sleep in order to be effective in preventing narrowing
or collapse of the upper airway. CPAP levels are typically set to raise the
pressure level in the entire respiratory system to the level required to overcome
any collapsing forces that result from the subambient pressure generated during
inspiration. However, this approach exposes the patient to pressure values
that are higher than the pressure needed to support the airway for much of
the breathing cycle. The inspiratory pressure in bilevel systems is set in
a similar manner. Bilevel devices seek to supply diminished expiratory pressure
to support the airway at the end of exhalation. CPAP therapy ignores the variations
in pressure requirements and provides splinting at a constant pressure level.
Therefore, it does not offer optimal pressure adjustment since the CPAP level
is based on the peak pressure requirements during inspiration. Bilevel systems
take advantage of the different pressure requirements during inspiration and
expiration. Nevertheless, bilevel systems do not offer optimal therapy either,
since IPAP is based on peak needs during inspiration and the EPAP is based
on the support needed at end-expiration.
PPAP seeks to provide only the pressure that is necessary to prevent collapse at any given moment during the breathing cycle. This will result in supplying maximal pressure corresponding to maximal negative inspiratory pressures and providing minimal pressure support corresponding to peak positive expiratory pressures in the airway. This is the major technical progress of the PPAP system that considers the physiological dynamic supportive forces (e.g. expiratory positive pressure gradient) during a breathing cycle. Thus, PPAP provides sinusoidal airway pressure waveforms approaching physiological requirements.
The effectiveness of PPAP
PPAP eliminated all obstructive apnoeas and hypopnoeas at a significantly
lower mean mask pressure compared to CPAP. The maximal inspiratory pressure
values during PPAP titration were almost identical to the effective pressure
settings during CPAP (table 2).
This explained the effectiveness of PPAP therapy at lower mean mask pressures.
The lower mean mask pressure was the result of a lower Pbasal during PPAP-titration. The lower Pbasal and
mean mask pressure with the same effectiveness during PPAP therapy lends support
to the assumption that the application of PPAP may also be associated with
more physiological mechanical conditions in the respiratory system (e.g. pressure/volume relations) by avoiding unnecessarily high
pressures in the lung compared to CPAP (fig. 3). This would carry clinical importance in patients
who have trouble with excessive PAP since CPAP increases end-expiratory
lung volume 17 and can unfavourably
affect the cardiorespiratory function 2, 18, 19, 20.
Two patients presented with 18 and 61 central apnoeas/hypopnoeas during PPAP-titration. They had 29 and two central events respectively during CPAP-titration. The latter patient had a body mass index (BMI) of 44.3 kg·m–2 and daytime blood gases showed slight hypoxaemia (oxygen tension in arterial blood (Pa,O2): 77 mmHg) and hypocapnia (Pa,CO2: 38 mmHg). Unstable ventilatory control and the additive ventilatory effect of PPAP could have been the cause for the higher number of central events in these patients 21. In the majority of the patients, there were no central events or no differences in central events (<10 events·night–1) during CPAP versus PPAP titration (5 pts). The presence of central events in some (essentially predisposed) patients on PPAP should be carefully assessed in further studies, since it could represent a potential drawback to the method. Patients with OSAS have a typically disrupted sleep structure with an increased number of arousals and increased proportion of NREM sleep stages 1 and 2 and depressed slow wave sleep (SWS) as well as REM sleep. CPAP was shown to eliminate obstructive event-related arousals, to increase SWS and REM sleep and to decrease NREM sleep stages 1 and 2, even during the first night 22, 23. The present results proved that the titration with PPAP affected the sleep structure in the same manner, as did CPAP. This was presented by the overall improvement in TST, the distribution of different stages and decrease in the number of arousals.
Most of the patients subjectively found the second titration night more comfortable, suggesting habituation to the positive airway pressure treatment. From the responses of the patients, the authors are confident that PPAP was found to be at least as, and not less, comfortable than CPAP.
A limitation of the present study, was that the critical pressure in the
pharynx was not assessed, and an objective measure of flow limitation was
not used, which was only visually controlled on the airflow tracing recorded
by pneumotachograph. In the protocol the titration of effective settings (CPAP, IPAP,
EPAP, PR) was performed manually on a "trial and error" basis.
That could also explain the relatively small but still statistically significant
difference in mean effective mask pressures.
In conclusion, proportional positive airway pressure was found to be as effective as continuous positive airway pressure in eliminating obstructive apnoeas and hypopnoeas, and it produced a comparable effect on sleep. The lower mean mask pressure with the same efficacy suggests the potential advantage for patients having trouble with excessive positive airway pressure. These results demonstrate that proportional positive airway pressure is a clinically feasible effective technical approach for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea. Further clinical studies on a larger group of patients should assess the long-term efficacy of, and patient compliance with proportional positive airway pressure therapy.
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Acknowledgements |
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TOPAbstractMethodResultsDiscussionAcknowledgementsReferences |
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This article has been cited by other articles:
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  G. M. Nolan, S. Ryan, T. M. O'Connor, and W. T. McNicholas Comparison of three auto-adjusting positive pressure devices in patients with sleep apnoea Eur. Respir. J., July 1, 2006; 28(1): 159 - 164. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 I. A. Harsch, S. P. Schahin, M. Radespiel-Troger, O. Weintz, H. Jahreiss, F. S. Fuchs, G. H. Wiest, E. G. Hahn, T. Lohmann, P. C. Konturek, et al. Continuous Positive Airway Pressure Treatment Rapidly Improves Insulin Sensitivity in Patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., January 15, 2004; 169(2): 156 - 162. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Farre, J. Rigau, J. M. Montserrat, L. Buscemi, E. Ballester, and D. Navajas Static and Dynamic Upper Airway Obstruction in Sleep Apnea: Role of the Breathing Gas Properties Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., September 15, 2003; 168(6): 659 - 663. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
: ST1; 
: ST2; 
: ST3–4; 
: ST rapid eye movement.